Keywords

Time Management, Work Stress, Work Performance, Social Exchange Theory.

Introduction

There are continuous challenges in our lives. Life is an attempt to live and struggle is required to achieve life goals. In this attempt, people have to face hurdles and a flow of demands. Work is part of our routine lives where we have to deal with stress (Anazodo et al., 2012).The effect of work stress on the performance of employees and organizations has achieved more attention with the progress in automation, worldwide integration of work, demographic tendency, continually uncertain job tasks and rising job requirements (Beehr et al., 2005;Terason, 2018).Work stress is a condition of bad emotions or it results from unfavorable working conditions that give warning to an employee (Xie & Johns, 1995; Jamal, 2007). According to Mimura and Griffiths (2003), work Stress has meaningful effect on the performance of employees and organizations and employee’s health is also affected. Studies show that the lives of employees are affected by stress in various ways. Most of the times, effectiveness of employees is affected when they are at work. Effectiveness of an employee is expressed by his work performance.

Work performance is the output of an employee at the workplace. It demonstrates that how nicely an individual is performing at his job and the degree to which an individual is completing work tasks and the rules and procedures of the organization with which he is working (Coetzer & Rothmann, 2006). Individuals regularly face many troublesome circumstances in their working lives. Plans of the organizations are intended to decrease stress at work and increase performance. Stress can be evaded without difficulty or handled through appropriate management methods i.e. time management and another approaches (Kavitha, 2009). According to Jabeen et al. (2021), ineffective time distribution not only increases the stress of an employee but also decreases performance at various levels.

Time management is the actions of an individual by which he uses maximum time to perform important tasks. It is actually a combination of awareness of the worth of time, setting objectives, the preference of duties and the checking the results (Claessens et al., 2004). Haider (2019) stated that with help of time management employees can improve their performance, increase learning skills and get victory in their career. The objective of this study is to determine the relationship between time management, work stress, and work performance in different organizations. However, even though many studies have been conducted on work stress and work performance, there has been very little research done on the topic of time management. The relationship between time management, work stress and work performance is determined in this article which is an under-researched area. The aim of this research is to find the correlation between time management, work stress and work performance. The current study will add value to the literature on work stress, work performance and time management.

Literature Review

Time Management

From the years the attention of time management studies and training programs has switched from important target group i.e. managers to a large group of employed individuals. The definition of time management is confusing. Actually, we cannot control the time because time is an out of reach determinant. A person can be affected only who is dealing with the time. Time management is considered a method of observing and ruling time (Eilam & Aharon, 2003). Various reasonable and empirical studies show the significance of time. Jabeen et al. (2021) explains different means used by the individuals to control their time in an organization and the ways by which these efforts can be improved. Time is very important key in our approach (Whipp et al., 2002).

Time management is the method of preparing and applying intentional command over the time used for particular actions, particularly to raise efficacy, performance or output. Particular actions are setting objectives to accomplish the requirements or desires and arrange the assignments essential to complete them. Time management can be supported by the collection of abilities, means, and methods used to control time when completing particular assignments, activities and objectives having due dates (Ahmad et al., 2012). According to the current sociologists the manner employees consider time is related to public problems i.e. family association, gender duties and workload of a person (Altaf & Awan, 2011). At the same time, Mitchell and Samma (2011) states about time management that persons first decide about their requirements and desires and after that they order them according to their significance. Time management is one element of the organizational behavior’s management which is a constructive approach to decrease stress. Time management is the productive consumption of resources and a technique to accomplish individual objectives. Moreover, time management is an effective consumption of time to be happy. Effective time management can remove stress and decreases its bad results (Boyas & Wind, 2010; Eldeleklio?lu et al., 2010).

Work Stress

Work satisfies several individual requirements like physical and mental performance, public relation, self-respect, dignity and feeling of ability or eligibility. Work may be a main cause of stress (Paais, 2018). People who work in different jobs face stress. Changes in Organizations i.e. changes in job, salary, job advancement, rise or decline in workforce and public differences are problems that burden on the individual and create embarrassment, trouble and tension for him. Now many people make the use of the word stress and still encounter variety of stress but only some understand how to manage stress (Sauter & Murphy, 1995). Work stress deals with the performance, decreases the determination and leads to imperfect performance for the plan. Stress results when changes occur within and outside atmosphere which may upset the harmony of life and may lead to illness in specific situations. Usually stress is the requirement of an individual to modify to the physical, psychic, and nervous against a change. Stress is generally linked with pressure and requirements. It prevents the concern of an individual for what is useful and directs to the absence of appropriate matters. Now-a-days stress is faced by employees in all the institutions because they have psychological tension (Cooper et al., 2001).

According to Yerkes-Dodson law, best performance occurs at a normal level of stress. The performance is low when the level of stress is too high or low. The performance of an individual is best when stress level is normal. Studies show that personnel clash and disappointment are significant sources of mental and physical tiredness likewise early aging and ailment and associated results. As Stress is certain both at work and in life, individuals face difficulties and their performance and output decreases and they will suffer the consequences of it (Robbins & Judge, 2012). Findings of the research showed that mental comfort betterment in all institutions decreases tension and stress that directs to work effectiveness (Barbar, 2012; Nasrin et al., 2012). Now-a-days work stress is one of the issues that cannot be avoided and various societies are facing stress. Employees face greater stress because work atmosphere has separate requirements as compared to the home atmosphere. For the advancement and growth of a country in all sectors, workforce should be in good condition, mindful and innovative. The use of personnel having good physical and psychic health in various companies leads to the best output (Cooper et al., 2001).

Work Performance

Work performance is one of the valuable determinants and most of the organization should acknowledge this factor. Work performance is an eminent dependent variable and also the significant construct in study and usage of industrial-organizational psychology (Appelbaum et al., 2008; Smith et al., 2012). Work performance can be classified into diverse valuable factors that require additional description (Otto et al., 2012). Work performance reflects the actions of an individual which he completes at work (Oswald et al., 2017).

Relationship between Time Management, Work Stress and Work Performance

Many studies have revealed that work performance of an employee is influenced by stress at the workplace. Most of the organizations today are ambitious for good work performance. According to (Coleman, 1976), current era is called the age of stress and tension. Most of the research shows the negative effects of the stress but stress is not always bad. Stress may lead to anxiety or motivate a person. Stress is treated as an outside cause that starts the anxiety within an individual (Kazmi et al., 2008) and stress may have a positive or negative influence on the work performance of an individual. Individual performance can be improved by stress when stress is normal. When stress level is low, person is not motivated which may lead to poor performance. Best performance results when stress is high (Salami et al., 2010). Stress has positive effect on job performance (Meglino, 1977; Shah et al., 2012). Literature also shows that there is no relationship between work stress and work performance (Ali et al., 2011).

Job stress have emotional effects i.e. anxiety, hatred and tension which leads to laziness, psychic obstruction and bad managerial ability (Salami et al., 2010). There is relationship between time management and organizational efficiency (Aduke & Immaculata, 2012). When there is stress at work, it will have negative effect on the performance of an individual (Anazodo et al., 2012). Each stress level decreases work performance by exhausting vigor, attention and time of an individual (Jamal, 1985). Physical changes occur as result of stressors which harm performance (Vroom, 1964). There has been an increasing acceptance of the significance of time management in decreasing work stress and enhancing performance from past two decades. Efficient time management is definitely an element in work performance (Barling et al., 1996; Jabeen et al., 2021) and can lead to the efficiency of an organization. Practicing time management especially planning can also increase the performance of a group (Weldon et al., 1991; Janicik & Bartel, 2003).

Additionally, ineffective time management is linked with extreme stress and anxiety (Macan et al., 1990; Lang, 1992; Jex & Elacqua, 1999). Literature review of Syaifuddin, (2016), shows that time management behaviors have a positive relationship with the decline in stress and work performance. When time management training was provided to the respondents, they showed time management behaviors (Totterdell, 1993; Eerde, 2003; Green & Skinner, 2005) but (Therese Hoff Macan, 1996) did not support this. There is positive relationship between time management training and performance (Orpen, 1994). According to the (Totterdell, 1993; Therese Hoff Macan, 1996), there is no relation between time management training and performance. Ahmad et al., (2012) stated that there is significant relation between time management and job performance. Managerial performance can be achieved by managing time. The stressors are statistically correlated with performance of employees that shows increase in these stressors decrease the performance of employees. The factors of stress have negative and significant relation with the work performance of staff. This study explained that stress decreases the work performance (Pandey, 2020).

Hypotheses Development

H1 There is significant relationship between time management and work stress.

H2 There is significant relationship between time management and work performance.

H3 There is significant relationship between work stress and work performance.

Research Methodology

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between time management and work stress and work performance. The objective of my study is to present and test a model containing variables: time management, work stress and work performance. In order to get generalized results through a large sample,a quantitative approach under the paradigm of positivism is the best method to achieve the objectives of this study. This study uses the survey method because this method can help to achieve the objective of current research which enables the researchers to collect the data from a large sample size. The objective of this study is to test a theory. Data is collected through structured questionnaires which are divided among the employees of different organizations. This study has used random sampling because individuals are selected randomly.

The data is obtained from 250 employees. In questionnaire, first of all general information is asked from the employees. The questionnaire comprises of four sections: first section is of general information in which gender, age, marital status, qualification, experience and rank in the organization is asked from the respondents, second section is of time management and there are four items of time management, third section is of work stress and fourth section is of work performance and there are also five items of work stress and work performance. Five Point Likert-type scale (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree) is used to record the answers of the employees. There are three constructs used in this research. To check the reliability and internal consistency of the instrument, Cronbach’s alpha is calculated. This research is using principal component analysis (PCA) with the help of SPSS to collect responses of various items on each construct (Time management, work stress and work performance) into their related consistent scale. This study reports factor loadings of each component which indicate how each item loads into its corresponding factor. Correlations are used to test the model.

Results

Descriptive Statistics

For data analysis purpose, correlation approach is used. Data is gained from 250 employees of different organizations. Employees are given structured questionnaires to make them fill. The respondents have provided about their gender, age, marital status, educational qualification, years of experience and position in the organization. There are 61.2%males and 38.8%females. The majority respondents have the age group of 21-30. According to their marital status One hundred and forty-four (57.6%) participants are single, one hundred and one (40.4%) are married and five (2%) respondents are divorced. Lastly, majority participants have work experience of 1-10 years and working as Project Manager, Site Supervisors, Engineers, respectively.

This study is based on a survey of 14 items in which responses differ from one to five on a five-point Likert scale. Mean scores range from 2.9719 to 4.0803 of different items and standard deviation values range from .98863 to 1. 31493. Table 1 represents the estimated values of Cronbach’s alpha to test the reliability and internal consistency of measures. In our study, the value of Cronbach’s alpha range from .729 to .859 which shows that each construct has high reliability. Time management (alpha=.762), Work Stress (alpha=.859) and Work Performance (alpha=.729). The high Cronbach’s alpha value for each construct shows that they are internally consistent.

KMO Measure of Sampling Adequacy Test and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity

KMO Measure of sampling adequacy shows the suitability of applying factor analysis. The value of KMOvaries between 0 and 1. It is considered that KMO value equal to 0.5 is poor, 0.6 is acceptable and a value close to 1 is better. The results shown in the Table 1 present the values of KMO, all the values are acceptable as they are above 0.6. KMO=0.603 for Time management, KMO=0.783 for work stress, and KMO=0.642 for work performance. In present study, it is valuable to conduct a factor analysis. Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity is used to determine the significance of the relationship between the items of a construct. If there is no relationship among the items of a construct, there is no need to go further with the factor analysis. It is assumed in Bartlett’s Test that there is no correlation. P value in Bartlett’s Test less than 0.05 shows the significance of the relationship among variables. We can go further with the factor analysis because p value in Bartlett’s Test of all constructs is less than 0.001.

Eigen Values

Components of a construct having Eigen values greater than 1 are considered to be the principal components and are used for analysis. Table 1 shows all Eigenvalues and total variances explained for the constructs. From each of the three constructs, only one principal component is extracted by using PCA extraction method. Time management consists of four items explaining 59.55% variance, work stress consists of five items explaining 65.43% variance and work performance consists of five items explaining 48.27% variance.

Factor Analysis

In order to confirm the construct validity, factor analysis is done with the help of PCA technique with varimax rotation method. Table 1 showing results of PCA. KMO Measure of sample adequacy test and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity are used in this study to check either factor analysis can be applied on data or not. Factor analysis contracts a large data to a small number of orthogonal factors.

Factor loadings

It is considered that the minimum value for the loadings of all items should be greater than 0.40 and the cross-loadings of the items should not be above 0.40. For all constructs i.e. Time management, work stress and work performance, all related items are loaded on just one component with different factor loadings. These factor loadings range from 0.595 to 0.920, 0.618 to 0.919 and 0.600 to 0.818 respectively, as shown in Table 1.

Table 1
Measurement Analysis
Constructs/Items	Factor Loading	Mean	S. D.	a	KMO	Bartlett’s Test	Sig.
Time Management				0.762	0.603	627.647	0
I am always conscious about time	0.595	4.0803	0.98863
I make a new “things to do” list of each working day	0.907	3.964	1.10616
I assign priorities to my tasks	0.92	3.904	1.15417
I generate due dates to assignments which don’t have deadlines	0.6	3.716	1.13158
Work stress				0.859	0.783	833.473	0
I cannot give enough time to my family because of my work	0.618	3.304	1.05833
I have less time for other activities because of my work	0.919	3.224	1.11481
I cannot relax because I have to spend too much time at work	0.898	3.18	1.11019
Many times, my job gets on my nerves	0.692	3.1044	1.28466
Most of the employees at my rank become exhausted	0.872	3.216	1.08353
Work performance				0.729	0.642	289.172	0
I am a very hardworking employee	0.746	3.22	0.99577
I do my job effectively	0.636	3.4498	0.9952
I can meet my deadlines	0.6	3.072	1.04267
I share task obligations with other employees	0.818	2.9719	1.31493
I quickly make inquiries on requests	0.652	3.332	1.05176

Correlation

The correlation analysis has been used to make sure the mutual association among the items of each construct. Results show that the values of correlation coefficients for all the items of each construct are positively significantly correlated with each other ranging from .319 to .944 for Time management, 0.359 to 0 .889 for Work stress and 0.134 to 0.519 for Work performance.

Table 2
Correlations-Time Management, Work Stress and Work Performance
	Time Management	Work Stress	Work Performance
Time Management
Work Stress	-.077**
Work Performance	.046**	-.618**

Table 2 shows the correlations between time management, work stress and work performance. Results show that there is significant negative relationship between time management and work stress (B=-0.077, p=0.000) and significant positive relationship between time management and work performance (B=0.046, p=0.000). Results also show the significant negative relationship between work stress and work performance (B=-0.618, p=0.000).

Discussion

Hypothesis 1 is accepted that there is significant relationship between time management and work stress because findings show that there is significant negative relationship between time management and work stress i.e. when there is effective time management, the work stress will be lowand work stress will be high in case of poor time management. These results have also been proved from previous research. Managers of organizations should give importance to these emotional constructs and give their workers opportunity of managing time to reduce stress through latest management techniques (Hosseini et al., 2013).

Hypothesis 2 that there is significant relationship between time management and work performance is also accepted because findings show that there is significant positive relationship between time management and work performance i.e., the effective the time management, the better the work performance and higher the work performance, the better the time management. According to the Nonis et al. (2011), time management has positive and significant relation with work performance of females. Moreover, if there is 1% change in time management, work performance will be affected by 51.8%. Therefore, time management has an influence on the work performance of employees. Nonis, et al., (2011) suggested that time management is related with job performance and best practices of time management increases the work performance.

Hypothesis 3 that there is significant relationship between work stress and work performance is also accepted because findings show that there is significant negative relationship between work stress and work performance i.e., the higher the work stress, the lower the work performance and lower the work stress, the higher the work performance. Research showed that more stress at work has negative influence on the job performance of employees (Nyangahu, & Bula, 2015). Stress should be checked frequently to know the level of stress because continuing stress negatively influences the performance of companies (Musyoka et al., 2013).

Practical and Theoretical Implications

This study is useful for employees, managers and project-based construction companies. The project managers should manage the time to reduce work stress and increase work performance during COVID-19. Hence, current study is helpful for the project managers. The hypothesis and proposed model promote social exchange theory. Novel relationships have been examined in this study that is important to achieve competitive advantage within the dynamic environment of project-based construction organizations of Portugal. The current research is also equally significant for supervisors and employees.

Limitations and Future Research

There are various limitations of this study. Current pandemic situation is also a limitation of current research. Limited financial resources have restricted the external validity of findings. Data collection was done in project-based construction companies of Portugal which has limited the generalizability. Future research can be done using same model in different working environment to extent the scope. Work stress can be used as a mediating variable between time management and work performance. The factors of stress can also be studied in the future and how they will affect employee performance.

Conclusion

This study investigates the relationship between time management, work stress and work performance. Research findings show that there is significant negative relationship between time management and work stress and significant positive relationship between time management and work performance. Results also show the significant negative relationship between work stress and work performance. Work burden causes stress and time pressure in employees. When employees face high level of stress, their performance will be reduced. When employees have time management skills, they can utilize their time efficiently. We can conclude by saying that when employees manage their time efficiently, they will have less stress at work and their work performance will also increase. By using time management techniques, productivity can be enhanced.

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