Keywords

Developing Society, Entrepreneurship Education, Economic Development, Unemployment

Introduction

Economic development is a major desire of nations of the world. In recent times, the desire has shifted from mere development to sustainable development. This implies that nations of the world across the globe are beginning to envisage that development may be insufficient especially when it fails to last the test of time. Thus, the demand for sustainable development which is expected to transcend from generation to another. Sequel to the sustainable development goals by the united nations which is an agenda for 2030 shows that education is a major tool needed in the attainment for such. Uleanya & Gamede (2017) state that access to education aids the attainment of sustainable development goals. However, they are of the opinion that the type of education that students are made to access must be qualitative. Conversely, Uleanya et al., (2019) opine that in the African context and seemingly in developing nations decolonization of the education system has the potency of ensuring sustainable development in such environments. According to Uleanya et al., (2018), it is the localization of the curricula of tertiary institutions that will help advance the pursuit and achievement of sustainable goals in the society. In other words Uleanya et al., (2019) advocate for globalization which is used to mean meeting local needs using global standard. Thus, the needs of local communities in nations of the world especially developing and underdeveloped societies should be met whilst considering using global standard. Meanwhile, subject such as entrepreneurship has been considered as a driver of economic progress to different societies across the globe. Thus, the inclusion of entrepreneurship education as course of studies or programmes for students in tertiary institutions of learning has been advocated (Gamede & Uleanya, 2017). Hence, the reason for this study which seeks to explore the roles of entrepreneurship as a tool to improve economic development, especially with regards to job creation.

Entrepreneurship is the process of doing something that is new and something that is different for the purpose of creating wealth for the people and adding value to the society, whereas economic growth is an increase in the productive capacity of an economic produce of goods and services from one period of time to another. Economic development is the process by which a nation improves the economic, political, social well-being of its people. The term is used frequently by politicians, economists and others. Economic development is a progress in economy or the qualitative measures of economic development usually refers to the adoption of new technology and the transition from agricultural based to industrial based economy and generally it refers to improvement of standards of living of people in a country.

Entrepreneurial activity drives economic growth and job creation (Badal, 2010; Gamede & Uleanya, 2017, Gamede & Uleanya, 2018). Over the past few decades, national and subnational governments worldwide have increasingly focused on engaging more people in market activities with an assumption that markets play a critical role in attaining sustained increases in living standards (Badal, 2010). A growing degree of uncertainty in the world economy evidenced by rising unemployment levels, stalled rate of job creation, and muted economic recovery has renewed the focus on entrepreneurial activity as a means to generate economic growth. Consequently, policymakers are paying considerable attention to the specific role of start-ups and high investment in research and development (R&D) as possible job creation strategies (Badal, 2010).

Conceptualization of Terms

Entrepreneurship Education

Entrepreneurship education can be defined as the purposeful intervention by an educator in the life of the learner to impact the learner with entrepreneurial qualities and skills to enable the learner to survive in the world of business (Erasmus et al., 2006 and Gamede & Uleanya, 2017). According to Erasmus et al., (2006), entrepreneurship education is a structured formal conveyance of entrepreneurial competencies, which in turn refers to the concepts, skills and mental awareness used by individuals during the process of starting and developing their growth orientated business ventures. Rwigema & Venter (2004) cited in Gamede & Uleanya (2017) explain entrepreneurship as the process of conceptualising, organising, launching and through innovation, nurturing a business opportunity into a potentially high growth venture in a complex, unstable environment. From the above definition at least four key components are deduced:

Firstly, it involves a process which is therefore manageable, secondly, it creates value in organisations and the market place where there was nothing before, thirdly it requires resources uniquely integrated to create the value and fourthly it is the outcome of an identified opportunity (Spady, 2006).

There is a general agreement by researchers that more emphasis should be placed on entrepreneurship education as opposed to business education, business education has more limited coverage than entrepreneurship education and training, which include additional topics such as innovation and risk-taking. According to the Consortium for Entrepreneurship Education (2004) cited in Gamede & Uleanya (2017), entrepreneurship education is a life-long learning process and consists of five stages, namely basics, competency awareness, creative application, start-up and growth. For instance, entrepreneurship education may begin with enlightening and introducing students to basic business phenomena and ideas, thereafter, they are guided to become abreast of entrepreneurial practices across the globe. Entrepreneurship education is expected to continue until such students begin to apply creative ideas to practice, start-up their own business and eventually maintain and grow them. The model below by Uleanya (2018) indicates that entrepreneurship education can begin from a general belief, perception and idea and does not end until participatory learning is achieved. In the context of this study, participatory learning will refer to the ability of entrepreneurship education students to partake in owning, maintaining and growing their own businesses (Figure 1).

Rural South Africa and their Challenges

According to Flora & Flora (2013) cited in Uleanya & Omoniyi (2019), Rural societies differ from nation to another. Flora and Flora (2014) further explain that factors that typify rural environments differ amidst developed, developing and underdeveloped nations. For instance, while non-availability of airports, rail transport, amongst others characterise communities in developed nations, poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, disperse settlement, untarred roads, underdevelopment, amongst others are common traits of rural environments in developing and underdeveloped nations of the world (du Toit, 2017; Taiwo et al., 2019; Uleanya & Omoniyi, 2019). Suffice to state that since South Africa is categorised as a developing nation, its rural societies are likely to be associated with the identified challenges. According to Taiwo et al., (2019) and Uleanya & Omoniyi (2019) whose studies were conducted using rural settlements in South Africa, high rate of unemployment, illiteracy, poverty, underdevelopment, amongst others are common challenges associated with rural South Africa.

Background of Entrepreneurship Role in Community Development

The key to success of establishing a culture of entrepreneurship in a country is education, which depends on all the stakeholders’ participation, including state, educators, parents and learners themselves. In most Countries schools lack the economic and entrepreneurship curricula that are skill based and career-oriented.

The assumption is that if entrepreneurship is taught across to all students at tertiary institutions, many people will be able to create jobs for others people, more people will be self-employed and they will contribute positively towards the gross domestic product of a country. Consequently, within this context, this study seeks to find answers to the following question:

• What is the role played by entrepreneurship in promoting economic development, economic growth and in ensuring that there is job creation?

A profound change in community economic development strategy over the past decade has been the emergence of entrepreneurship. The researcher believes that community developers recognize that entrepreneurship is critical to the vitality of the local economy. This change in strategy is due to several factors. According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2012), the primary reason is the impact of globalization in driving many manufacturing jobs to overseas locations and, thus, reducing the effectiveness of using industrial recruitment as a strategy. Another factor leading to the rise of an entrepreneurship strategy is the evidence that entrepreneurs are driving economic growth and job creation throughout the world. For example, the National Commission on Entrepreneurship report presented in the OECD (2012) indicates that small entrepreneurs are responsible for 67% of inventions and 95% of radical innovations since World War II. On the international level, studies demonstrate close connection between entrepreneurship and job creation. This helps in boosting the economy and enhancing development in various nations of the world. Thus the reason for this study which explores the roles of entrepreneurship when adopted as a tool to promote economic development, with emphasis on job creation in developing nations.

Entrepreneurship Skills in Economic Development

Entrepreneurial skills

One vital skill set is the ability of individuals to start ventures and to marshal others in the community in the bricolage process. Bricolage refers to the entrepreneur’s ability to create something out of resources on hand. True entrepreneurs do not complain or give up when they do not have available resources. They use the available means and build something out of those means. Conversely, a community that has vast resources for entrepreneurs but no entrepreneurial people to take advantage of those resources, or skills to assemble them into a new enterprise, will not succeed.

Presence of Skilled Workers

Once people master the courage to start innovative companies, they must be able to hire workers to code the software, operate the machines, generate press publicity, train other employees, and produce more ideas for future improvement. Potential entrepreneurs usually consider worker availability before deciding if a community would suit their potential business. A region with an aggressive workforce development policy will make entrepreneurs feel more positive about their likelihood of success. Russian entrepreneurial levels were down because business owners in the Soviet era were “often deemed criminals for making a profit” (Aidis et al., 2008).

Risk and Failure Tolerance

Conventional thinking says that entrepreneurs are people who love to take risks, but contrary to this common conception, entrepreneurs may in fact be more risk averse than non-entrepreneurs (Hoogendoorn et al., 2019). Moreover, because fear of the consequences of ailure discourages action, communities that encourage a little risk are more likely to increase the number of participants in the ecosystem. This is in alignment with the work of Philips & Pittman (2014). Meanwhile, though the communication and educating entrepreneurs as well as potential entrepreneurs on tolerating failure can be helpful and desired, teaching them to disregard failure prejudice is important and needful. According to Philips & Pittman (2014), communities are to be concerned about entrepreneurial practices and adjust from considering setbacks as failures. Rather communities are enjoined to embrace the act of considering setbacks as opportunities for experiential learning. Thus, communities are t be positive in their approach to dealing with what may be considered as failures and setbacks.

Networking Support

A review of the work of Panigrahi and Joshi, (2016) suggests that new entrepreneurs are likely to spend almost half of their time networking as they seek support and motivation, counselling, access to opportunities, resources, and other needed information. Research evidence suggests that the diversity of individuals’ relationships is strongly correlated with the economic development of communities. Providing opportunities for creative people to network is critical, but the networking programs need to be substantive, not just chats with the same people that already know one another. Feld (2012) cites some good examples of efforts. These include: hackathons, new tech meetups open coffee clubs, start-up weekends, and accelerators, and open office hours from successful entrepreneurs and financiers.

The role of Entrepreneurship in Developing the Economy

A review of the work of Tan (2007), suggests that communities and non-profits organizations have also joined the entrepreneurship movement. This is achieved through social entrepreneurship. Here there have been two schools of thought - social entrepreneurship as a subset of non-profit management. In this sense it is just another way for existing non-profit organizations to extend their scope with new innovations to address social needs and yet be self-sustaining. The second school sees it as a new area related to entrepreneurship and yet pertinent to the sphere of social problems (Tan, 2007).

Wealth Creation and Sharing

According to Wong (2014), entrepreneurship is the process of doing something new or something different for the purpose of creating wealth for the individual and adding value to society. Entrepreneurs are persons who undertake wealth-creating and value adding process through incubating ideas assembling resources and making things happen.

Entrepreneurism is an ideology based on the individual’s need to create, innovate, and transform creativity and innovative desire into wealth creation and value adding undertakings for the individual’s benefit and common good. Enterprising culture is a commitment of the individual to the continuing pursuit of opportunities and developing an entrepreneurial endeavour to its growth potentials. No enterprise invention or innovation while creating wealth but depriving society taking value away has legitimacy in the world. Value can be reduced when the environment communities or society is damaged or harmed (Tan, 2007).

Exports Promotion

Economic development is one of the foremost objectives of every economy in the world and economic growth is primary to economic development. There are many contributions to economic growth. One of the elementary economic questions is how countries can accomplish economic growth. One of the answers to this question relies on export-led growth hypothesis which means claims that export growth is a key factor in promoting economic growth (Sultanuzzaman et al., 2019).

Foreign trade can promote economic growth, through improving better allocation, distribution of the resources and increase in production. Each country can specialise in more efficient resources in terms of production cost and opportunity cost through international trade. Through introduction of new materials and equipment that is not available in the country, this would increase productivity in country and economic growth (Chen, 2009).

Export can increase availability of foreign exchange reserve which can be used to import capital goods, availability of capital goods will increase domestic production and improve deficit in balance of the payment. Export can lead to the increase of investment level. As a results of increase of job opportunities and economic growth can be observed (Jordaan & Eita, 2007).

The introduction of new input and products varieties can be influenced through export. Export will help to increase wider market for domestic products, more access to exchange of information, increase integration with external countries markets. Through trade country can enjoy the competitive advantage through the specialisation process (Kónya, 2006).

Export plays an important role in developing the economy of the countries because it attracts different investors from different countries. This increases the economy of the country. As entrepreneurs seek for opportunities, take risks, and become innovative more competitive advantages are experienced in the nation, consequently increasing the standard living of the people. This is because the more export increases more than import, the economy of the country increases. This leads to the decrease in poverty. Export also helps because it keeps the country aware about what is happening global and the country can be able to learn more skills that are used by different countries to improve the economy of the country. For instance, a review of the work of Sultanuzzaman et al., (2019) indicates that when a country has wider market access, more competitive and highly capital utilization will enjoy the economies of scale leading to a sustainable economic growth. Export can increase technological innovations that arise due to foreign market competition, economies of scales and increase capacity utilization.

Entrepreneurship Leads to Increase in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Per Capita Income of the Country

Gross domestic product (GDP) is the market value of all final goods and services produced within the boundaries of a country in a given period of time. It measures the monetary value of final goods and services that is, those that are bought by the final user produced in a country in a given period of time (say a quarter or a year). It counts all the output generated within the borders of a country. GDP is composed of goods and a service produced for sale in the market and also includes some nonmarket production, such as defence or education services provided by the government. It is important to notice that not all productive activity is included in GDP, such as black market activities are not included because they are difficult to measure and value accurately. That means that a baker who produces a loaf of bread for a customer would contribute to GDP, but would not contribute to GDP if he baked the same loaf for his family.

An alternative concept, Gross National Product (GNP) is the value of all goods and services produced within the Country by the permanent residents of the Country.
According to Matthews (2012), three ways in which GDP can be measured are:

• Production approach: Sums added (value added) at each stage of production, where value added is defined as total sales minus the value of intermediate inputs into the production process. For example, flour would be an intermediate input and bread will be the final product, or an architect’s services would be an intermediate input and the building constructed will be the final product.

• Expenditure approach adds up the value of purchases made by final users, for example, the consumption of food, televisions, and medical services by households; the investments in machinery by companies; and the purchases of goods and services by the government and foreigners.

• Income approach sums the incomes generated by production, for example, the compensation employees receive and the operating surplus of companies (roughly sales minus costs) (Matthews, 2012)

GDP in a country is usually calculated by the National Statistical Agency, which compiles the information from a large number of sources. In making the calculations, however, most countries follow established international standards.

Per Capita Income

Income per capita is a measure of the amount of money earned per person in a certain area. It can apply to the average per-person income for a city, region or country, and is used as a means of evaluating the living conditions and quality of life in different areas. It can be calculated for a country by dividing the country's national income by its population.

Research Methodology

Research Design and Instrumentation

The review of the current literature on entrepreneurship education provided broad perspectives for theoretical and conceptual frameworks for the role and functions of the relevant stakeholders in entrepreneurship education. Literature study was used to gather facts about entrepreneurship education both nationally and internationally. Determination of trends was based upon a longitudinal consideration of recorded data indicating what has happened in the past and what the present situation reveals. Selected, relevant literature material was used as basis for this study. The process involved the use of journals, bulletins, periodicals, theses, newspaper cuttings and every possible secondary source of information related to this study. The outcome of this research will be used to facilitate the process of developing entrepreneurship education.

The questionnaire was used as a research instrument. Kumar (2019) maintains that questionnaires permit anonymity, preclude possible interviewer biases and permit a respondent sufficient time to consider answers before actually answering. Data provided by questionnaires was more easily analysed and interpreted than the data obtained from verbal responses and lastly, questionnaire elicited information that cannot be obtained in other methods.

The target population for this study were selected lecturers from designated tertiary institutions of learning in South Africa.

Quantitative Approach

Quantitative approach that was used in this study is traditionally associated with the positivist paradigm, which according to Kumar (2019) refers to the acceptance of a stable, unchanging, external reality which can be investigated objectively-usually by using an experimental, quantitative methodology, including the testing of hypotheses.

This approach was used, firstly, because the researcher believed that it leads to some knowable truths about entrepreneurship education at tertiary institutions. It also provided information on whether certain generalizations presented in the literature are also true for this population.

The researcher conducted the survey study in which questionnaires were used as the data-collection method. This descriptive type of research was used because of its appropriateness for the nature of the problem.

Instrumentation

The Questionnaire

The researcher made use of the questionnaires as the quantitative data-collection instrument. Questionnaires were given to 300 selected lecturers from selected tertiary institutions of learning in South Africa. The questionnaire was divided into two (2) sections, with each section focusing on the aims of the study. Section 1 consisted of questions which focused on the biographic and general information. The information obtained from this section helped the researcher to get knowledge about the respondents and the demographic nature of their institutions.

Section 2 had closed questions focusing on introduction of entrepreneurship education and essence of entrepreneurship education at tertiary level. Questions in this section were operationalized using the following four-point scale, and the respondents were asked to rate their responses as follows Figure 2:

The respondents were requested to cross (X) the appropriate response on the scale provided.

Population and Sampling

The questionnaires which were designed for this study was administered to 300 randomly selected lecturers from across tertiary institutions of learning in South Africa. The tertiary institutions of learning were randomly selected since entrepreneurship and development which is the crux of the study encompasses all in the nation.

Data Analysis

After all the questionnaires were received from the respondents, the most important task was to reduce the large mass of data obtained to a format suitable for analysis. The respondents’ responses were then coded accordingly. The frequency distribution was utilised to analyse.

Results and Discussion

Tertiary Institutions of Learning have Budget for Entrepreneurship Education

Table 1 revealed that the majority of the respondents (72%) indicated that they agreed with the statement that tertiary institutions of learning have budget for entrepreneurship education. This finding coincides with the work of Oni & Mavuyangwa (2019) who opine that entrepreneurship education are budgeted for in universities in South Africa. Contrastingly, the findings from the work of Mauchi et al., (2011) who conducted a similar study using Zimbabwean tertiary education institutions indicates that tertiary institutions of learning do not have budget for entrepreneurship education. Suffice to state that while some nations of the world concur to ensure that tertiary institutions of learning have budget for entrepreneurship education, others do not.

Table 1 Responses of Respondents
		Fully Agree	Agree	Disagree	Fully Disagree	Total
Tertiary institutions of learning have budget for entrepreneurship curriculum.	N	113	101	55	31	300
	%	38%	34%	18%	10%	100%
Entrepreneurship education empower citizens to successfully integrate into the global economy	N	110	118	58	14	300
	%	37%	39%	19%	5%	100%
Entrepreneurship improves the standard of living in a Country	N	108	107	52	33	300
	%	36%	36%	17%	11%	100%
Entrepreneurship leads to Wealth creation and sharing	N	119	101	58	21	300
	%	40%	34%	19%	7%	100%
Entrepreneurship increases export promotion	N	121	105	51	23	300
	%	40%	35%	17%	8%	100%
Entrepreneurship ensures increase in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Per Capita Income of a Country	N	129	121	23	27	300
	%	43%	40%	8%	9%	100%
Entrepreneurship promotes Balanced Regional Development.	N	109	114	50	27	300
	%	36%	38%	17%	9%	100%
Stakeholders within and around the tertiary institution of learning are involved in the design of the curriculum.	N	131	100	48	21	300
	%	44%	33%	16%	7%	100%

Entrepreneurship Education Empowers Citizens to Successfully Integrate Into the Global Economy

Table 1 showed that the majority of respondents (76%) indicated that they agreed that Entrepreneurship education empower citizens to successfully integrate into the global economy. This high percentage of respondents confirmed that stakeholders such as entrepreneurs were involved in the design of curriculum of tertiary institutions of learning. Entrepreneurship education should empower citizens to successfully integrate into the global economy. It is very importance of Entrepreneurship education to empower citizens to integrate with the global economy. According to Uleanya et al., (2018) as well as Smith et al., (2019), various stakeholders influence the type of curriculum to be implemented in institutions of learning across many nations of the world. Smith et al., (2019) opine that lecturers are seen as the implementers of the curriculum. Thus, their attitudes, quality of training and preparedness to implement a given curriculum are important variables. This is necessary as curricula planned without the involvement of stakeholders usually become ineffective. In this regard, stakeholders will include entrepreneurs because entrepreneurship education cuts across their jurisdiction. Suffice to state that entrepreneurs within and around the communities where the curricula for entrepreneurship education are to be implemented are major stakeholders and need to be involved.

Entrepreneurship Improves the Standard of Living of People in a Country

Table 1 revealed that the majority of respondents (72%) indicated that they agree that Entrepreneurship improves the standard of living of people. This high percentage confirmed the importance of entrepreneurship curriculum at tertiary level. It is the function of educational planners, through broad consultation, to draw up aims, policies and syllabuses. This was done by examining the problems and giving direction to those experiences that the student’s encountered while at tertiary level. This enables the people to avail better quality goods at lower prices which result in the improvement of their standard of living.

Entrepreneurship Ensures Wealth Creation and Sharing

Table 1 illustrated that 74% indicated that they agreed with the above statement that entrepreneurship education ensures wealth creation. The high percentage of respondents agreed that Entrepreneurship ensures Wealth creation. This is supported by Gamede & Uleanya (2017) who state that curricula information and technology included aspects of entrepreneurship, communication skills and management.

Entrepreneurship Education Promotes Exports

Once again, Table 1 showed that the majority of respondents (75%) indicated that they agreed with the above statement. This high percentage of respondents confirmed that Entrepreneurship promotes Exports. There are many contributions to economic growth; one of the elementary economic questions is how countries can accomplish economic growth? One of the answers to this question relies on export-led growth hypothesis which means claims that export growth is a key factor in promoting economic growth (Sultanuzzaman et al., 2019). Meanwhile, Panigrahi & Joshi (2016) in support of entrepreneurship education promoting exports hold the view that entrepreneurship education is important to economic development. This is due to the range of functions which it performs in enlightening people on various ways by which entrepreneurial activities can be promoted both internally and externally. Gamede & Uleanya (2018) consider entrepreneurship as a solution to unemployment based on the verse functions that it performs. However, these functions may be unperformed or underperformed without quality entrepreneurship education. Suffice to state that entrepreneurship education is as important as entrepreneurship.

Entrepreneurship and Increase in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as well as Per Capita Income of the Country

Table 1 revealed that the majority of respondents (68%) indicated that they are positive that entrepreneurship increases the GDP of the nation. The percentage confirmed that Companies added value in curriculum innovations to fit existing business functions and activities. This finding coincides with the works of Doran et al., (2018) as well as Gamede & Uleanya (2018) that hold the view that entrepreneurship help in boosting the economy of a nation and invariably contribute to its GDP.

Balanced Regional Development

Once again, Table 1 illustrated that above half of the respondents (70%) showed that they agreed with the above statement. The high percentage confirmed that Entrepreneurship leads to the Balanced of Regional Development. Entrepreneurship uses to mobilised and utilized local resources such as small savings and talent of relatives and friends and help in effective utilization of resources. The aim of entrepreneurs is to get quick investment return and it also stabilizing force by providing high output capital ratio as well as high employment capital ratio.

Stakeholders Involvement in the Curriculum Design of Tertiary Institutions of Learning

Table 1 showed that the majority of respondents (77%) indicated that they agreed that stakeholders were involved in the design of the curriculum of tertiary institutions of learning. These stakeholders are expected to include entrepreneurs and other members of the communities. This high percentage of respondents confirmed that stakeholders were involved in the design of the curriculum of tertiary institutions. This is supported by the work of Smith et al., (2019) who hold the view that lecturers are seen as the implementers of the curricula and need to be involved in the planning of such. Similarly, in the planning of the curricula for entrepreneurship education, the roles of entrepreneurs within and around communities where such curricula are to be implemented are immense. Thus, entrepreneurs are to be involved as major stakeholders in the planning of curricula for entrepreneurship education.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Communities are recognizing that entrepreneurship is an important strategy of community economic development. Communities must be flexible and responsive to meet the varying needs of entrepreneurs. It is essential that support be tailored to fit the needs and wants of entrepreneurs, rather than based on satisfying an external agency or funding source. An entrepreneurial ecosystem involves four major components: human capital, culture, support system, and momentum. While fully developing an ecosystem requires a long-term commitment, there are many options for communities. Entrepreneurship allows for an understanding of the impact of individual behaviour on aggregate-level economic activity, while on the other hand it allows for an assessment of the impact of broader macro-economic institutions, such as rules, laws, and informal social norms, on an individual’s entrepreneurial decision making. Sequel to the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made:

• Entrepreneurship education should be maximised as a tool in ensuring job creation to reduce unemployment rate.

• Entrepreneurship education should be used as a tool to ensure sustainable development in the economy.

• Inputs of relevant stakeholders which include entrepreneurs should be sought and included in the designing and planning of the curriculum of entrepreneurship education.

• Entrepreneurship education should be treated with utmost caution and made a practical course.

• Tertiary institutions of learning should begin to offer programmes such as Junior Achievement which provide youths with the knowledge and practice of business. This will promote entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial activities in tertiary institutions of learning.

• Tertiary institutions of learning should incorporate notable entrepreneurship training programmes in their curriculum.

• Partnership between tertiary institutions of learning and growing ventures which will promote more sophisticated forms of capital including access to equity capital should be encouraged and promoted.

References

1. Aidis, R., Estrin, S., &amli; Mickiewicz, T. (2008). Institutions and entrelireneurshili develoliment in Russia: A comliarative liersliective. Journal of Business Venturing, 23(6), 656-672
2. Badal, S. (2010). Entrelireneurshili and job creation: Leveraging the relationshili. USA: Galluli Inc.
3. Chen, H. (2009). A literature review on the relationshili between foreign trade and economic growth. International Journal of Economics and Finance, 1(1), 127-130.
4. Consortium for Entrelireneurshili Education. (2004). South Africa: Calie Town.
5. Doran, J., McCarthy, N., &amli; O’Connor, M. (2018). The role of entrelireneurshili in stimulating economic growth in develolied and develoliing countries. Cogent Economics &amli; Finance, 6(1), 1442093.
6. du Toit, A. (2017). Exlilaining the liersistence of Rural lioverty in South Africa. Institute for lioverty, Land and Agrarian Studies: University of the Western Calie, South Africa.
7. Erasmus, B.J., Loedoiff, li.V.Z., Mda, T., &amli; Nel, li.S. (2006). Management training and develoliment. Calie Town: Oxford University liress.
8. Feld, B. (2012). Start-uli Communities: Building an Entrelireneurial Ecosystem in Your City. John Wiley &amli; Sons.
9. Flora, C.B., &amli; Flora, J.L. (2013). Rural communities: Legacy and change. 4th edition, New York: Routledge.
10. Gamede, B.T., &amli; Uleanya, C. (2017). The role of entrelireneurshili Education in secondary schools at further education and training lihase. Academy of Entrelireneurshili Journal, 23(2), 108-121.
11. Gamede, B.T., &amli; Uleanya, C. (2018). Entrelireneurshili: Solution to unemliloyment and develoliment in rural communities. Journal of Entrelireneurshili Education, 21(1S).
12. Hoogendoorn, B., van der Zwan, li., &amli; Thurik, R. (2019). Sustainable entrelireneurshili: The role of lierceived barriers and risk. Journal of Business Ethics, 157(4), 1133-1154.
13. Uleanya, C., &amli; Omoniyi, I.B. (2019). Effects of household lioverty trali on learners’ academic lierformances: A case of rural high schools in Nongoma Circuit of South Africa. AFFRIKA Journal of liolitics, Economics and Society, 9(1), 139-165.
14. Jordaan, A.C., &amli; Eita, J.H. (2007). Exliort and economic growth in Namibia: a Granger causality analysis. South African Journal of Economics, 75(3), 540-547.
15. Kónya, L. (2006). Exliorts and growth: Granger causality analysis on OECD countries with a lianel data aliliroach. Economic Modelling, 23(6), 978-992.
16. Kumar, R. (2019). Research methodology: A steli-by-steli guide for beginners. Sage liublications Limited.
17. Matthews, R. (2012). GDli and the US Economy: 3 Ways to Measure Economic liroduction. Retrieved from httlis://www.mic.com/articles/14943/gdli-and-the-us-economy-3-ways-to-measure-economic-liroduction
18. Mauchi, F.N., Karambakuwa, R.T., Golio, R.N., Njanike, K., Mangwende, S., &amli; Gombarume, F.B. (2011). Entrelireneurshili education lessons: a case of Zimbabwean tertiary education institutions. Educational Research, 2(7), 1306-1311.
19. OECD. (2012). OECD Territorial Reviews: Smaland-Blekinge. Sweden 2012, OECD liublishing.
20. Oni, O., &amli; Mavuyangwa, V. (2019). Entrelireneurial intentions of students in a historically disadvantaged university in South Africa. Acta Commercii, 19(2), 1-7.
21. lianigrahi, A., &amli; Joshi, V. (2016). Entrelireneurshili education and economic develoliment: An Indian liersliective. Indian Journal of Rural and Urban Develoliment, 5(1): 2249-7285.
22. lihililis, R., &amli; liittman, R.H. (2014). An Introduction to Community Develoliment. New York: Routledge.
23. Rwigema, R., &amli; Venter, R. (2004). Advance Entrelireneurshili. Calie Town: Oxford University liress.
24. Smith, V.T., Gamede, B.T., &amli; Uleanya, C. (2019). Subject advisers’ liercelition of curriculum delivery in the intermediate lihase in South Africa. Interchange, 50(3), 293-303.
25. Sliady, W. (2006). Outcomes based education. Australia: Australia curriculum studies association.
26. Sultanuzzaman, M.R., Fan, H., Abdulahi-Mohamued, E., Hossain, M.I., &amli; Islam, M.A. (2019) Effects of exliort and technology on economic growth: Selected emerging Asian economies. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, 32(1), 2515-2531.
27. Taiwo, S.O., Uleanya, C., &amli; Vezi-Magigaba, M.F. (2019). Gender comliarative analysis of the imliact of smartlihone as a learning tool. Journal of Gender, Information and Develoliment in Africa, 8(1), 195-212.
28. Tan, W.L. (2007). Entrelireneurshili as a wealth creation and value-adding lirocess. Journal of Enterlirising Culture, 15(2), 101.
29. Uleanya, C. (2018). Learning challenges among undergraduate rural university students in South Africa and Nigeria. Retrieved from httli://uzsliace.unizulu.ac.za:8080/xmlui/handle/10530/1719.
30. Uleanya, C., &amli; Gamede, B.T. (2017). Access with success: Aliliroach for sustainable social changes in develoliing African societies: A case study of South Africa. The Anthroliologist: International Journal of Contemliorary and Alililied Studies of Man, 30(3), 174-179.
31. Uleanya, C., Rugbeer, Y. &amli; Duma, M.A.N. (2018). Localizing educational curriculum of tertiary institutions: Aliliroach to sustainable develoliment. Journal of Entrelireneurshili Education, 21(1S).
32. Uleanya, C., Rugbeer, Y., &amli; Olaniran, S.O. (2019). Decolonization of education: exliloring a new liraxis for sustainable develoliment. African Identities, 17(2), 94-107.
33. Wong, S.K.S. (2014). Imliacts of environmental turbulence on entrelireneurial orientation and new liroduct success. Euroliean Journal of Innovation Management , 17(2), 229-249.