Keywords

Intercultural Adjustment, Adjustment to Work, Adjustment to Interaction, General Adjustment, Expatriate Executives, Intercultural Training, Cultural Diversity.

Introduction

Despite its high cost, its risks and the development of its forms (traditional expatriation, commuting, alternating mobility, virtual mobility, "self-initiated expatriates") (Cerdin, 2012), international mobility is attracting growing interest from companies that are increasingly seeking to select future talent with the ability to manage the complexity due to the internationalization of the economy (Dickmann & Harris, 2005; Point et al., 2012). For the case of our research, organizational expatriate executives will be the subject of our theoretical and empirical study. They are defined by (Yanaprasart, 2006) as executive employees or unit managers and employees sent to a foreign subsidiary for a mission of limited duration and performing technical or managerial expertise functions.

The literature on expatriation shows that international success is based on adapting to the new culture, which favors performance at work and the accomplishment of the mission in its totality (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985; Black, 1988; Black et al., 1991; Cerdin and Peretti, 2000; Varner and Palmer, 2005; Nunes et al., 2017). At the start of the 1960s, the authors of the first works on adjustment (Lysgaard, 1955; Oberg, 1960; Davis, 1971) considered it as a unitary construct linked to the shock suffered by expatriates when confronted with new general living conditions. Indeed, most research on expatriation (Church, 1982; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985) dealt with the most visible aspects of new cultures such as food, transportation, health systems, etc. Studies that highlighted the multidimensional path of adjustment began in the early 1990s with the publication of the works of (Black, 1988), (Black & Mendenhall, 1991) and (Black et al. 1991). Consequently, intercultural adjustment has the following three facets: adjustment to work (supervision, responsibilities, performance), adjustment to interaction (to contact with members of local community) and general adjustment (to living conditions such as housing, food, care).

The determinants of intercultural adjustment have been studied and analyzed in several research works (Black, 1988; Black et al., 1991; Black & Gregersen, 1991; Cerdin & Peretti, 2000; Waxin & Chandon, 2003; Waxin & Panaccio, 2005). Since the initial model of (Black et al., 1991), the literature emphasizes individual, organizational and contextual determinants. Although it remains superficial, incomplete or even non-existent in the majority of multinationals (Hutchings, 2003; Lawson & Shepherd, 2019; Montgomery & Bourassa-Dansereau, 2019; Waxin & Chandon, 2003; Waxin & Panaccio, 2005), intercultural training has aroused the interest of studies in intercultural psychology and management sciences which have shown its beneficial effect on intercultural adjustment. According to (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1991s) and (Lawson & Shepherd, 2019), intercultural training helps expatriate managers to overcome the period of culture shock by teaching them to maintain effective relationships with members of the host community and by predisposing them to adapt more quickly to their new positions.

In most searches, the relationship between cross-cultural training and adjustment is significant (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Black et al., 1991; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1991; Okpara et al., 2021; Presbitero & Toledano, 2017; Waxin & Chandon, 2003). However, other studies (Cerdin, 1999; Waxin & Panaccio, 2005) revealed a non-significant relationship between this variable and the three facets of adjustment. As Montgomery and (Bourassa-Dansereau, 2019) explain, the design of pre-departure training does not sufficiently consider the particular demands of expatriate managers who resist traditional forms of training.

The aim of this paper is to study the nature of the relationship between intercultural training and adjustment in its three facets. We will then try to answer the following question: To what extent can intercultural training acts on the three dimensions of the adjustment of expatriate executives? The epistemological approach of our research is based on a developed positivism. Initially, we will opt for a positivist approach based on a hypothetico-deductive approach. In a second step, we will focus on a thematic analysis to explain more deeply our quantitative results. First, we will begin by studying the theoretical foundations of the three-dimensional construct of intercultural adjustment and training. Thereafter, we will present the research methodology and we will expose and discuss the results obtained. The resulting implications will be proposed to improve the relationship between intercultural training and expatriate adjustment.

Literature Review and Hypothesis Development

Presentation of intercultural adjustment

The following part is devoted to the presentation of the main definitions of intercultural adjustment as well as to the highlighting of its three-dimensional aspect.

Many studies agree to define adjustment as the degree of psychological comfort and familiarity of a person with different aspects of the culture of the host country (Black, 1990; Okpara et al., 2021). Intercultural adjustment then constitutes an internal, psychological and emotional state and can only be felt by the person affected abroad (Black, 1990). According to (Aryee & Stone, 1996) and (Nunes et al., 2017), adjustment is a factor of satisfaction and psychological well-being. It results in cognitive, attitudinal, behavioral and psychological changes (Haslberger, 2005; Sit et al., 2017).

For their part, (Hou et al., 2018) emphasize the fact that it has two dimensions associated with the psychological comfort felt in the host country as well as the absence of distress such as depression. To this end, intercultural adjustment is a response to the culture shock resulting from the confrontation with a new culture and involves both the degree of psychological comfort and the change of behavior to reduce the conflicts arising inside and outside the framework (Okpara et al., 2021).

Knowing that it has not been sufficiently theorized, (Black, 1988), (Black & Mendenhall, 1991) and (Black et al., 1991) propose a three-dimensional construct of adjustment comprising the following three facets: adjustment to work (supervision, responsibilities, performance), adjustment to interaction (to contact with members of the host community) and general adjustment (to living conditions such as housing, food, care) (Cerdin & Peretti, 2000).

Adjustment to work

The first dimension of intercultural adjustment includes job-specific responsibilities, performance level and expectations and management responsibilities (Black, 1990; Black et al., 1991; Cerdin & Peretti, 2000; Mérignac & Roger, 2004; Nunes et al., 2017). According to (Black & Stephens, 1989), it refers to commitment to the company, the desire to stay there and the satisfaction experienced with the new job and is considered to be the easiest dimension to adapt to the cultural workplace. Indeed, adjustment to work is maintained by the similarities in the procedures between the tasks carried out in the country of origin and those carried out in the host country (Black et al., 1999). It also promotes the career development of expatriates (Song et al., 2019).

Adjustment to Interaction

Some authors have split this dimension into adjustment to interaction with locals inside and outside the workplace (Nunes et al., 2017; Okpara et al., 2021). Indeed, socialization with members of the host community, contact with locals in general, contact with host nationals outside of work and talking with them are the main dimensions of relational adjustment (Black et al., 1991; Cerdin & Peretti, 2000; Mérignac & Roger, 2004). As pointed out by Black et al. (1999), the expatriate finds it more difficult to maintain relations with members of the host community than to adapt to work and general living conditions. This idea is also supported by (Selmer, 2002) who showed that adjustment to interaction is the most important and most difficult dimension because it is essentially based on implicit communication as well as on building interpersonal relationships with members of different cultural backgrounds.

The literature highlights the close relationship between this dimension of adjustment and socialization. Indeed, this concept is defined by (Fischer, 1997) as a process of social interaction which makes it possible to learn and integrate the cultural values of a society into the structure of our personality and this, during our experiences and under the effect of social agents whose “educational” role is to build our sociability to promote adjustment to the social context and to others with whom we live. (Kour. & Jyotim, 2022) explained that culturally intelligent managers are able to communicate with members of different cultural roots, which promotes the establishment of friendly relations with them.

General Adjustment

This dimension, which has often been the favorite subject of researchers, includes living conditions in general, housing, food, shopping, cost of living, facilities and opportunities for relaxation and care (Black et al., 1991; Cerdin & Peretti, 2000; Nunes et al., 2017). The literature considers that expatriates adapt more easily to the general environment of the host country than to the social relations maintained with the locals. However, it seems that expatriate managers have more difficulties to adapt to the general environment than to the work (Black et al., 1991).

Intercultural Training

Intercultural training is defined as a process that can enhance intercultural learning through the development of cognitive, affective and behavioral skills needed to adapt to the new culture (Okpara et al., 2021). It also contributes to the improvement of cultural intelligence involving the ability to function effectively in a situation of cultural diversity (Presbitero & Toledano, 2017), which promotes the management of cultural differences and the adaptation of behavior to cultural specificities and local societies. Based on intercultural psychology, (Brislin, 1979) identifies three methods of intercultural training associated with cognitive, affective and behavioral aspects.

These methods are analyzed by (Waxin & Panaccio, 2005). For these authors, the cognitive method corresponds to the dissemination of information through the organization of conferences and meetings analyzing the specificities of the new cultural context. As for the affective method, (Waxin & Panaccio, 2005) emphasize that it engenders individual reactions capable of mastering stressful situations. For the behavioral method, it helps expatriate managers to adopt behaviors appropriate to local cultural and societal specificities and to communicate better with members of the host community (Waxin & Panaccio, 2005).

For his part, (Tung, 1981) identifies five training programs that are part of a continuum, namely, documentary programs promoting didactic training, assimilation programs to improve understanding of the new culture, language programs, awareness programs and field experiences (Waxin & Panaccio, 2004, 2005). These authors note that the different models of intercultural training and their content depend on the type of mission. They vary according to two essential factors: the degree of resemblance between the culture of origin and the host culture and the degree of interpersonal interaction between the expatriate manager and the nationals of the host country (Cerdin & Peretti, 2000; Waxin & Panaccio, 2005).

Gertsen (1990) develops a typology of training methods in four categories. As this researcher points out, the first type concerns conventional or traditional training marked by the dissemination of information during unidirectional communication, as is the case in schools and universities. According to (Waxin & Panaccio, 2005), experimental training corresponds to the integration of participants in real life situations. In this sense, Gertsen distinguishes two possible directions for training: either the training aims to enrich the notion of culture in general to raise awareness and attract participants to this concept, or it aims to discover a specific culture (Waxin & Panaccio, 2005). Experimental training helps to improve the skills of participants by encouraging them to adopt behaviors appropriate to local particularities (Presbitero & Toledano, 2017).

The table 1 below describes the different intercultural training strategies analyzed by (Littrell & Salas, 2005), (Sit et al., 2017) and (Lawson & Shepherd, 2019). As these authors show, these strategies are likely to help expatriate executives to become aware of their own cultural referents, to understand and recognize cultural differences and to master the harmful effects of cultural shock.

Table 1 Cross-Cultural Training Strategies
Strategies	Objectives
Attribution training	- Develop the attitudes and skills needed to explain and understand the behaviors of locals. - Teach expatriates how to make isomorphic attributions similar to those of members of the host community.
Cultural Awareness Training	- Understand and analyze their own values, attitudes and beliefs to know how the home culture affects their behaviors.
Training in Behavioral and Cognitive Modification	- Helping expatriate managers to identify inappropriate behavior with specific local characteristics. – -It is also a question of teaching them to adopt the behaviors accepted by the locals.
Interaction training	- Helping expatriate executives to integrate into the new culture and to maintain relationships with locals inside and outside the workplace.
Language training	- Teach expatriate executives the language of the host country to better communicate with its members and to adapt to its general living conditions.
Didactic training	- Provide expatriate executives with as much information as possible related to living and working conditions in the host country (economy, culture, politics, geography, work characteristics, shopping, etc.).
Experimental training	- Offer expatriate executives the opportunity to learn by experiencing situations that can be experienced in the host country.

Hypotheses and Research Model

Researchers who have based on the study of the relationship between cross-cultural training and adjustment have not come to unanimous results. Indeed, the review of several studies on intercultural adjustment has allowed us to observe that intercultural training has most often been linked to the three facets of adjustment. As (Black & Mendenhall, 1990), (Black et al., 1991), (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1991) and (Waxin & Chandon, 2003) show, this variable has a significant effect on intercultural adjustment. As such, (Waxin & Barmeyer, 2008) consider that intercultural training improves the work performance of expatriate executives, helps to establish relationships with members of the host community and promotes psychological well-being and familiarity with different aspects of the new environment. (Presbitero &Toledano, 2017) find that it promotes cultural intelligence and therefore intercultural adjustment. For their part, (Okpara et al. 2021) find a positive relationship between intercultural training and the three dimensions of intercultural adjustment.

However, other studies have highlighted the absence of a significant relationship between cross-cultural training and the three facets of adjustment. Indeed, empirical research conducted by (Cerdin, 1999) and (Waxin & Panaccio, 2005) demonstrated the ineffectiveness of different training methods. As such, these authors concluded that cross-cultural training plays no role in maintaining the adaptation process. Studies by these authors revealed a non-significant relationship between cross-cultural training and the three facets of adjustment. For their part, (Waxin & Chandon, 2002) note that the rate of trained expatriates in their sample (54%) is very high compared to other studies such as that conducted by (Cerdin, 1999). Indeed, this researcher finds that only 20% of expatriates have received real intercultural training. As part of our research and based on the results of previous studies highlighting the significant effect of intercultural training on adjustment, we put forward the following hypotheses figure 1:

H1: Expatriates who have had cross-cultural training will adapt to the job better than those who have not.

H2: Expatriates who have had cross-cultural training will adapt to interacting with locals better than those who have not.

H3: Expatriates who have had intercultural training will adapt to general living conditions better than those who have not.

The conceptual model below illustrates these relationships.

Methodology

To answer our research question: To what extent can intercultural training acts on the three dimensions of the adjustment of expatriate executives? we mobilized a developed positivist epistemological approach. This part is devoted to the presentation of the methodology of the quantitative and thematic study.

Methodology of quantitative study

In this part inherent to the methodology of the quantitative study, we focus on the sample and the collection of data, the measurement of variables and the tools for data analysis

The sample and data collection

After submitted a pre-test to colleagues, researchers and a population of twenty-five expatriate executives from different nationalities, the finalized questionnaire was distributed to 600 expatriate executives, 200 of whom were contacted personally and the rest by electronic. After checking the time spent by the respondents in Tunisia (at least 6 months), 232 usable questionnaires were collected (of which 70% obtained face to face and 30% electronically), the return rate is, in fact, of 38.66%. From this perspective, studies on expatriation often show low response rates (Cerdin & Peretti, 2000).

Male expatriate executives make up most of the respondents (89.22% against 10.78% for women). The sample comprises 232 expatriate executives including 95 French, 78 Italian, 22 Belgian, 12 German, 10 Spanish, 3 Turkish, 3 Algerian, 2 English, 2 Moroccan, 2 Albanian, 2 from the Netherlands and 1 Romanian belonging to various sectors industrial (textiles and clothing, electrical, electronic and household appliance industries, chemical, mechanical and metallurgical industries, etc.) and tertiary (mass distribution, outsourcing, etc.) and whose geographical location is located in different regions of Tunisia. The characteristics of our sample are presented in the following table 2.

Table 2 Characteristics of the Sample
Variable		Frequency	Percentage
Age	Between 18 and 29 years	35	15,08
	Between 30 and 39 years	69	29,74
	Between 40 and 49 years	72	31,03
	Between 50 and 59 years	56	24,13
Gender	Man	207	89,22
	Women	25	10,78
Hierarchical level	Leader	20	8,62
	Senior	184	79,31
	Middle manager	24	10,34
	Employee	4	1,72
Activity area	Agri-food	9	3,87
	Glass ceramic	8	3,44
	Mechanical and metallurgical	45	19,39
	Electrical, electronics and appliances	51	21,98
	Chemical	8	3,44
	Textile and clothing	50	21,55
	Wood, cork and furniture	2	0,86
	Leather and footwear	8	3,44
	Various industries	10	4,31
	Various services	41	17,67
Marital status	Single	114	49,13
	Couple without children, the spouse	10	4,31
	remained in the country
	Couple without children, the spouse	11	4,74
	accompanies you
	Couple with children, the family stayed in	21	9,05
	the country
	Couple with children, the family	71	30,60
	accompanies you
	Couple with children, only the spouse	5	2,15
	accompanies you

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Received: 27-Dec-2023, Manuscript No. IJE-24-14423; Editor assigned: 01-Jan-2024, Pre QC No. IJE-24-14423 (PQ); Reviewed: 15-Jan-2024, QC No. IJE-24-14423; Revised: 22-Jan-2024, Manuscript No. IJE-24-14423 (R); Published: 29-Jan-2024