Keywords

Turnover Intention, Organisational Commitment, Career Growth, Training and Development, Salary, Performance Appraisal, Academic Staff

Introduction

Despite its efforts, the higher education system in Jordan, such as the provision of scholarships to faculty and increasing research funding, is struggling to provide quality higher education. The existing higher education governance framework, which was implemented in 2017, has emphasized the number of students, and initiatives have been taken to increase the enrolment in the higher education institutes. Consequently, the student enrolment has increased by 18 percent in subsequent tear from 284000 students to 335000. However, the number of teaching staff in the universities has not increased at the same pace as the faculty in the top eight universities has increased from 5934 to 6069 in the same period. This widening gap has increased the workload on the university teachers in Jordan.

Jordan is facing a massive inflow of refugees from Yemen; the number of school pass out increases and places pressures on higher education management by many applications for graduation and post-graduation degrees. Meanwhile, due to this factor, the cost of higher education in Jordan is also increasing. Therefore, the rationale behind the policy of growing enrolment in Jordanian higher education institutes was to cover the increasing higher education cost and sustain a large number of passed out from secondary schools. However, the increasing number of students in Jordan is increasing the job workload on the faculty as the number of subjects per semester is increased from 6 to 9 for a professor and 9 to 12 hours a week, and fresh Ph.D. in some cases are teaching 15 hours as well. Meanwhile, the research students to be supervised are also increasing and making the job more demanding. However, on average, the professor in the public universities of Jordan is drawing $1200 and around $ 1500 in private universities, which in comparison to other developing Arab countries like UAE, KSA, and Qatar is much lower and also from many different countries such as Turkey, Malaysia, and Singapore. In the public universities, this low amount of salary is also coupled with the slow speed of promotion and low frequency of training and development programs.

Another issue subsequent to it is the turnover to cross border universities which usually termed as the brain drain of faculty to developed Arab countries such as UAE, Qatar, and the USA, which are offering comparatively attractive salary packages, and other related benefits (Badran, 2018) The inequity at workplace in the public universities as a result of poor or week HRM practices primarily in the public universities are affecting the teaching quality and education standards, and consequently, employees are leaving their job for better opportunities. Reports stated that, due to inequity at the workplace, around 5000 doctorate graduates are leaving the country for better opportunities. The situation is aggravated in the public universities where the bureaucratic structure is unable to offer market-competitive salaries to highly qualified. Talented faculty members, in turn, intelligent brains prefer the competitive and rewarding private sector. Thus, one of the issues experienced by the Jordanian industry includes employee turnover, which escalated due to the increase of private education institutes, weak or poor HR practices in public sector organizations affecting the commitment and encouraging the faculty to switch. Meanwhile, slow career growth is one reason that further involves employee commitment and the employees changing their jobs to other organizations (Johnson et al., 2016; Badran, 2018). The detail of the issues contributing to the problem of higher turnover is given below.

Several studies have investigated the reasons for employee turnover or their intention to change the workplace. The focus of significant researches on turnover intention is on different factors such as demographics, work attitudes, job-related aspects, etc. Organizational support and justice are the main factors that significantly impact the employee intention for turnover (George & Wallio, 2017). The turnover intention is also caused by some aspects related to the job, including the match between the organization and individual, incompatibility of position, congruence of work-value, job autonomy, promotion chances, pay, and alternatives of job (Rani & Samuel, 2016). The intention to leave the organization is also influenced by the attitudinal factors, including organizational commitment, employee satisfaction, citizenship behavior, job involvement, and perceived organizational support (Kang et al., 2015). Job performance, absenteeism, and biographical characteristics are some other predicators of turnover intention (Hom et al., 2017). Organizational and job-related factors influence the intention of employees to leave the organization. This offers an excellent insight to the organizations related to the reduction of turnover in the organizations. Moreover, some studies have determined the influence of HRM practices on turnover intention.

In current opportunities, many research studies have actually empirically identified the affiliation between training and development, salary, performance appraisal, and turnover intention. Various research studies have actually created further looking for. It has actually been stated through some analysts that training and salary, development, and performance evaluation are actually adversely related to the turnover intention of staff members. This mirrors that when employees identify far better salary, training programs, and opportunities for professional development, this minimizes their intention to leave the institution (Dhanpat et al., 2018; Naqvi & Bashir, 2015). Some research studies have actually discovered that turnover intention is actually certainly not dramatically affected by salary. The skill-sets and productive capabilities of employees strengthen with training, and this makes all of them capable of being utilized through various other organizations. As a result, training is actually efficiently pertaining to turnover intention (Cheng & Waldenberger, 2013). Involvement of politics in performance appraisal makes the system biased, and this increases the chances of employee turnover (Salleh et al., 2013).

Irrespective of all the statements highlighting the significance of training and development, salary, performance appraisal on employee turnover intention, there are some limitations of the studies on these variables (Dhanpat et al., 2018). There is a need for further investigation on the inconsistency in the association of training and development, salary, performance appraisal, and employee turnover intention for better understanding. This research sample will be based on academic employees of Jordanian public universities.

Moreover, several research studies exist, which relate different HRM practices with employee turnover intention. These studies have not given career growth enough consideration. The practices of career growth are essential as they claim that employees have a deep concern for career growth in the current as well as other organizations (Karavardar, 2014). Moreover, it has been argued by (Karavardar, 2014) that there is a need for practical policies on career growth to retain employees. Organizations should create psychological relations with the employees. Employees are retained for longer by the organizations that offer growth and development opportunities to them. This reduces the turnover intention among the employees.

The second reason to conduct this research is based on the negligence for career growth in previous studies' turnover intention. There are few studies related to career growth to turnover intention. Some of these include the studies of Nouri and Parker (2013). The four-dimensional model has not been confirmed by some studies (Weng & McElroy 2012). The researcher has used career growth as a multidimensional construct for analyzing all the dimensions of career growth. This has been tested less before the association between turnover intention and organizational commitment.

Another cause for performing this research is the shortage of straight impact by HRM practices, featuring performance appraisal, development, training, and salary, career growth on turnover intention (Kim et al., 2018; Raihan, 2012; Ikramullah et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2014). Different authors have highlighted that the relation between HRM methods and worker results is missing out on. The best notable analysis functions in this respect include (Weng et al., 2018), which revealed that the relation between the HRM process, featuring performance appraisal, training, development and salary, development in career, and turnover intention, could be determined with a moderator, i.e., organizational commitment.

The previous studies have actually paid attention to the straight association between HRM strategies and turnover intention (Cheng et al., 2016). A thorough assessment of the literary works reveals that analysts differ along with one another based on their views. It has been actually proposed that the distal antecedents of turnover intents are actually HRM methods (Velloso et al., 2019). Organizational commitment serves as a stand-in variable for affecting turnover intention (Fernet et al., 2017). As a result, it is actually important to study the impact of employee perspectives, including organizational commitment, where HRM practices create the effect on turnover intention.

The aim of the study is to examine the impact of career growth, training and development, performance appraisal, and salary on turnover intention, besides organization commitment as a mediator in the Jordanian public universities.

Literature Review

Conceptual Framework

The research framework diagrammatically presents the summary of all the identified conceptual frameworks presented from the literature with a focus on the research topic. This particular study's research framework has salary, training and development, performance appraisal, and career growth as independent variables that impact the independent variable, turnover intention, directly and indirectly via the mediation of organizational commitment (As seen in Figure 1).

Hypothesis 1

Several researchers also claimed that salary and turnover intention has a significant negative relationship (Kroon & Freese, 2013; Naqvi & Bashir, 2015). However, previous related articles on financial remuneration, such as salary, and turnover intention, argued that there are two shortcomings; firstly, the studies do not provide any consistent relationship between salary and turnover intention. Secondly, scholars have traditionally focused on non-monetary rewards, whereas recently both practitioners and scholars have highlighted and recommended the added value of focusing in the area of economic factors such as the role of salary in influencing employee turnover in the organization of Jordan On the basis of the findings, the researcher develops the following hypothesis.

H1: Salary has a significant impact on employees' turnover intention among academic staff of Universities in Jordan

Hypothesis 2

In academics, much attention has been gained by the association of training and development and ETI. According to (Sung & Choi, 2014)'s theory, organizations can make an investment in human capital through the provision of training programs for improving the skills and productive capabilities of employees. Several studies have studied the way in which training and development affect the turnover intention among the employees. For instance, the human resource perspective, social exchange, and human capital are the ways in which they affect is carried out (Shen & Benson, 2016). According to research carried by (Kang et al., 2015), there is a relation between turnover intention and employees' training. Moreover, it has been claimed by (Kadiresan et al., 2015) that the skills and competencies of employees are improved through training programs offered by the organization in order to reduce the turnover intention among them. (Chew & Chan, 2008; Dardar et al., 2012; Yean & Yahya, 2013; Naqvi & Bashir, 2015). Therefore, the researcher has developed the following hypothesis.

H2: Training and development have a significant impact on employees' turnover intention among academic staff of Universities in Jordan

In recent years, most empirical studies have been undertaken and claimed that performance appraisal had a negative effect on ETI (Kadiresan et al., 2015; Rubel & Kee, 2015; Yean & Yahya, 2013). Most of the empirical researches has analyzed the direct association between turnover intention and performance appraisal. Researchers have highlighted different results. It was verified that there is a negative influence of performance appraisal on ETI. This is perceived as the fair standards adopted by organizations in performance appraisal. Employees satisfied with the performance appraisal standards of an organization are likely to stay for longer. This minimizes the employees' willingness to change the workplace (Kadiresan et al., 2015; Rubel & Kee, 2015). Several studies have argued that when the political factor is involved in performance appraisal, it becomes biased. Employees facing such a situation are likely to leave the organization or move to a new one. Therefore, employee turnover is expected to increase with bias in the performance appraisal system (Salleh et al., 2013). Although much research has been carried out on the association of two variables, there are limited studies available in the context of developing countries. Most of the research studies finding the association between performance appraisal and turnover intention are based on western countries. No study is available analyzing the association between these variables in the context of the Jordanian higher education sector. Therefore, the researcher developed the following hypothesis.

H3: Performance appraisal has a significant impact on employees' turnover intention among academic staff of Universities in Jordan

Hypothesis 4

Weng et al. (2010) found that CG with four dimensions was negatively related to turnover intention. Recent literature such as (Karavardar, 2014) also claimed that CG and development are associated with low turnover of staff. Another recent study by (Karavardar, 2014) confirms this. The studies relating to CG opportunities and turnover intention are limited in number, and some of the studies include research works by (Nouri & Parker, 2013; Price, 2001; Weng & McElroy, 2012). It was suggested by (Weng & Hu, 2009) that four factors can influence the professional growth of employees. These factors include career goal progress, professional development, remuneration growth, and promotion speed. Employees are likely to progress in their careers through the acquisition of new skills and capabilities. When employees receive rewards and incentives based on the efforts, they are likely to be satisfied. According to (Weng & McElroy, 2012), these four dimensions have not been confirmed. (Weng & Hu, 2009) suggested further investigation to the four-dimension model. Despite the fact that there are studies that have tried to investigate the link between CG and turnover intention. However, firstly there is a real dearth of studies on Jordan in general and public sector universities of Jordan in particular. Secondly, to date, there is confusion on the impact of career growth on employee turnover intention. Thus, the current study is planned to bridge the gap by studying the relationship between career growth and employee turnover intention among Jordanian universities' academicians. Therefore, the researcher developed the following hypothesis.

H4: Career growth has a significant impact on employees' turnover intention among academic staff of Universities in Jordan

Hypothesis 5

In the past, the majority of the researchers who claimed that OC had been exposed to be a more imperative predictor of turnover intention among different disciplines, which implies that, when employees are effectively and emotionally attached or committed to the organization, probably less likely to leave the current employment (Rubel & Kee, 2015). Therefore, the researcher developed the following hypothesis.

H5: Organizational commitment has a significant impact on employees' turnover intention among academic staff of Universities in Jordan

Hypothesis 6

The study by (Vandenberghe & Tremblay, 2008; Naqvi & Bashir, 2015) verified that salary is positively associated with OC, which implies that if employees perceived higher, attractive, and equitable internal salary system within the organization, they become positively attached with the organization. Therefore, the researcher developed the following hypothesis.

H6: Salary has a significant impact on organizational commitment among academic staff of Universities in Jordan

Hypothesis 7

In recent years, many empirical studies have been undergone by researchers who claimed that training & development is positively associated with OC, which implies that training leads to higher commitment, which means that employees act more committed when they received training & development programs from the organization in return they appreciate the organization's investment (Nawaz & Pangil,2016). Therefore, the researcher developed the following hypothesis.

H7: Training and development have a significant impact on organizational commitment among the academic staff of Universities in Jordan

Hypothesis 8

An empirical study conducted by (Rubel & Kee, 2015) found that employees' commitment to the organization will enhance if they find a fair and well-designed performance system. This finding is also correlated with other studies, which found that performance appraisal positively affects the OC of employees (Stassen & Schlosser, 2010; Ikramullah et al., 2012). Therefore, the researcher developed the following hypothesis.

H8: Performance appraisal has a significant impact on organizational commitment among academic staff of Universities in Jordan

Hypothesis 9

Weng and McElroy (2012) found a positive relationship between CG dimensions (promotion speed, remuneration growth, professional ability development, and career goal progress) and OC. Recent literature also claimed that each dimension of CG is positively correlated to OC. Therefore, the researcher developed the following hypothesis.

H9: Career growth has a significant impact on organizational commitment among the academic staff of Universities in Jordan

Hypothesis 10

Some empirical studies have demonstrated that the OC mediates the relationship between salary and turnover intention; this means that if employees are satisfied with the salary system within the organization, they become positively attached to the organization, and a chance to quit the organization will minimize (Vandenberghe & Tremblay, 2008; Nawaz & Pangil, 2016). Therefore, the researcher develops the following hypothesis.

H10: Organization commitment has a significant mediation impact on the relationship between salary and employees' turnover intention among academic staff of Universities in Jordan

Hypothesis 11

It is evident from the study of (Kadiresan et al., 2015), who found that the relationship between training and development and turnover intention is mediated by OC, which means that employees become more attached and committed to the organization when they perceive training & development as beneficial for their career development, so they want to repay the organizations' investment which has subsequently decreased their intention to leave the organization. Therefore, the researcher developed the following hypothesis.

H11: Organization commitment has a significant mediation impact in the relation between training and development and employees' turnover intention among academic staff of Universities in Jordan

Hypothesis 12

Association commitment, thought about being a vital variable in the relationship between performance appraisal and ETI, was sustained by recent pragmatic researches, like the research study carried out by (Rubel & Kee, 2015), who declared that the commitment of workers would certainly enrich if they find properly designed and reasonable efficiency system. Previous researches additionally located that performance appraisal is actually highly associated with total worker satisfaction, motivation, commitment, and turnover intention. Research performed by (DeNisi & Murphy, 2017) shows that employees are actually devoted to their job when they viewed a reasonable and helpful functionality administration system in the association. Yet another research carried out through (Ikramullah et al., 2012) recognized that the commitment of employees enhances when they note a reasonable and properly designed performance system. Aside from that, some other researchers additionally discovered that commitment of staff members would certainly proceed when they identified their performance appraisal technique in addition to other HR processes to become fair and effectively designed (Ikramullah et al., 2012). For this reason, based on recently talked about literature, it is actually proposed that the worker performance appraisal techniques are actually decent in evaluating and evaluating functionality also experiences a high amount of commitment, which essentially reduces their intention to leave the association. The analyst cultivated the following hypothesis.

H12: Organization commitment has a significant mediation impact in the relationship between performance appraisal and employees' turnover intention among academic staff of Universities in Jordan

Hypothesis 13

There is increased concern among the employees for CG. In this way, career management practices are crucial for the employees as well as the organization. Employees always look for better career opportunities whether in the current organization or any other (Karavardar, 2014). It was argued by (Karavardar, 2014) that employees can be retained if an organization increases its focus on the provision of CG opportunities for the employees. The organization will retain firms looking for growth in their career, and this will reduce the turnover intention among them. Similarly, an empirical analysis was conducted by (Weng & Hu, 2009; Weng & McElroy, 2012), in which the influence of CG was found on the turnover intention and occupational commitment. The study found that there is a negative influence of CG on turnover intention, and the relation is partially mediated by occupational commitment. It has been argued by (Weng & McElroy, 2012) that employees having a positive perception of the benefits received from the organization and long-term opportunities have less turnover intention. The literature findings suggest that the organizations' career opportunities by offering remuneration and promotions based on the skills and abilities of the employees make them committed to the organization. Employees feel obligated to work for the organization when they receive such opportunities. Therefore, the social exchange theory suggests that when individuals perceive that they are in a good exchange relationship in the organization, they have less intention to quit. Moreover, with the employees' positive perception regarding training and development opportunities, performance appraisal, CG, and salary packages, they are obligated to work for the organization. Therefore, the researcher develops the following hypothesis.

H13: Organizational commitment has a significant mediation impact on the relationship between career growth and employees' turnover intention among academic staff of Universities in Jordan

Methodology

The study assumed that the turnover intention, commitment, and managerial practices use could be measured in numbers, and prediction can be acquired from the analysis. Therefore, the study belongs to the positivism philosophy, deduction approach, quantitative methodology, empirical survey passed study, used cross-sectional data, and original data.

The population of the study is any academic employee who is working in public universities of Jordan. Based on different sources, the number of Universities is around 10. An estimation of the academic workforce working in those Universities is 2500 employees. The actual sample size is 288 employees, and the distributed survey is 370, which was distributed by using face-to-face data collection methods in a conventional technique of sample selection in 2019.

The survey was organized to ask questions in Likert-5 format. Likert 5 questionnaire style has been used in social science studies for a long time and proved to be a suitable style for measuring human perceptions. In this study, salary is defined as "a financial benefit (i.e., wages or salary) acquired at the end of the month in return for services or tasks performed in order to achieve company objectives." Similarly, to measure salary, a 5-items scale by (Tessema & Soeters, 2006) was adapted. To measure training and development, a 3-item scale by (Delery & Doty, 1996) was adapted. In this study, faculty performance evaluation and an appraisal are defined as "the measure of teaching performance 'by the Department Head." Performance appraisal is measured with the help of a 3-item scale by (Zhang & Bartol, 2010) was adapted. Career growth professional ability development is a 15-item scale by (Weng & Hu, 2009) were employed. This study defined organizational commitment as a commitment of individual faculty to academic institutions. OC, a 6-items scale by (Gould et al., 2005), was employed. The turnover intention was measured with a 5-item scale by (Wayne et al. (1997) was adapted. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) techniques are used for statistical data analysis via the SmartPLS software package, which is used in management and social science studies such as (Salem & Alanadoly, 2020; Salem & Salem, 2018).

Findings

In PLS-SEM, two-part of data analysis is essential in regression-based models, the reliability and validity tests (measurement model) and the relationships tests (structural model)

Validity and Reliability of Constructs

Several measures have been conducted, such as composite reliability, outer loading, convergent validity, and discriminant validity, to ensure the measurement model's reliability and validity (Hair Jr et al., 2016; Sekaran & Bougie, 2016). Some items were eliminated based on the rule of thumb for outer loading and cross-loading; therefore, four items were deleted. Outer loading for all other items is above 0.708 with no cross-loading from the foreign item. Thus indicator reliability is achieved. As shown in Table 1, composite reliability is measured by Cronbach's Alpha, and all values are above the cut-off value of 0.70. Therefore, the reliability of the measurement model is achieved. The average Variance Extracted (AVE) values are above 0.5; therefore, convergent validity is achieved. Finally, Table 2 shows the Fornell-Larcker criterion matrix, which indicates that no discrimination validity issues are.

Table 1 Constructs Reliability and Validity
Construct	AVE	Cronbach's alpha
Career Growth (CG)	0.68	0.897
Organisational Commitment (OC)	0.69	0.91
Salary (SA)	0.87	0.723
Performance Appraisal (PA)	0.58	0.871
Training and Development (TD)	0.72	0.799
Turnover Intention (TI)	0.61	0.853

Table 2 Discriminant Validity – Fornell-Larcker Criterion
	CG	OC	PA	SA	TD	TI
CG	0.825
OC	0.121	0.837
PA	0.147	0.115	0.776
SA	0.289	0.224	0.401	0.771
TD	0.571	0.292	0.466	0.555	0.874
TI	0.032	0.173	0.322	0.278	0.43	0.791

Relationships Examinations and Discussions

For the purpose of assessing the power of the model construct in predicting the outcome variables, predictive power R2 and predictive relevance were used (Hair Jr et al., 2016). The primary dependent variable, Turnover Intention (TI), illustrates a moderate predictive power and a large predictive relevance. As seen in the table, the related R square value is 0.633 (a power of 63.3%), and the related Q square is 0.467 (a relevance of 46.7%). The moderate variable, Organizational Commitment (OC), illustrates a satisfactory predictive power and a medium predictive relevance. As seen in the table, the related R square value is 0.464 (a power of 46.4%), and the related Q square is 0.339 (a relevance of 33.9%). (Table 3)

Table 3 Predictive Power And Predictive Relevance Of Proposed Model
	Predictive Power		Predictive Relevance
	R Square	Status	Q Square	Status
OrganisationalCommitment	0.464	satisfactory	0.339	Medium
Turnover Intention	0.633	Moderate	0.467	Large

Table 4 shows the findings of the relationships between the variables. The rule of thumb to accept or reject the relationship is either the p-value less than 0.05 or the t statistics is more than 1.98 (Hair Jr et al., 2015). The relationship between OC and TI is significant, with a path coefficient of 0.556. For the predictors of turnover intention, all the four antecedent variables have significant relationships, and the ascending rank of the variables based on the path coefficient value are; CG (0.358), PA (0.311), SA (0.282), TD (0.224). For the predictors of organizational commitment, all the four antecedent variables have significant relationships, and the ascending rank of the variables based on the path coefficient value are; CG (0.377), PA (0.341), SA (0.255), TD (0.188).

Table 4 Path Coefficient Assessment Of The Direct Relationships
Hypothesis	Relationship	Path Coefficient	Standard Deviation	T Statistics	P Value (one tailed)	Status
H1	SA à TI	0.282	0.039	4.782	0.004	Significant
H2	TD à TI	0.224	0.038	3.82	0.01	Significant
H3	PA à TI	0.311	0.04	7.3	0	Significant
H4	CG à TI	0.358	0.038	8.617	0	Significant
H5	OC à TI	0.556	0.056	14.459	0	Significant
H6	SA à OC	0.255	0.044	4.992	0.014	Significant
H7	TD à OC	0.188	0.023	2.12	0.04	Significant
H8	PA à OC	0.341	0.036	8.322	0	Significant
H9	CG à OC	0.377	0.041	10.817	0	Significant

Table 5 shows the path coefficient assessment for the mediating effects. The results show that the four variables have significant direct effects and significant indirect effects, which logically leads to significant total effects, and the mediation for all the relationships is party and significant. Overall, CG has the highest total effect (0.557), PA has the second total effect (0.484), SA has the third total effect (0.439), and TD has the fourth total effect (0.349).

Table 5 Path Coefficient Assessment Of The Mediating Effects
Hypothesis	Relationship	Direct Effect	Indirect Effect	Total Effect	Mediation
H10	SA à OC à TI	0.282	0.156792	0.438792	Partly Mediation
H11	TD à OC à TI	0.224	0.124544	0.348544	Partly Mediation
H12	PA à OC à TI	0.311	0.172916	0.483916	Partly Mediation
H13	CG à OC à TI	0.358	0.199048	0.557048	Partly Mediation

Overall, the four antecedent variables have significant relationships to both organizational commitment and turnover intention. The model can explain 63.3% of the turnover intention based on the four antecedents; career growth (0.358), performance appraisal (0.311), salary (0.282), training and development (0.224), and the mediator, organizational commitment (0.556). Besides, the model can explain 46.4% of the organizational commitment based on the four antecedents: career growth (0.377), performance appraisal (0.341), salary (0.255), training and development (0.188).

Contributions and Recommendations

The study contributes to the knowledge of turnover intention, organizational commitment, career growth, salary, training and development, and performance appraisal in the University's academic staff. The proposed combination of variables, especially the emphasis on turnover intention as the dependent variable and organizational commitment as a mediator, is another theoretical contribution, mainly when it is applied in the university academic staff context. The study also adds knowledge about turnover intention and the causes of it in Jordanian Public Universities.

This study is limited to the empirical examination of the Jordan public universities; however, replicating the same design with the same research design but in different categories of universities and in other countries will provide support for the model validity and generalization of the results. The results show that career development and performance appraisal have a higher impact than salary and training and development; the ascending of indirect benefits over the direct benefits needs more investigation by interviewing experts to explain that. The model can also explain up to 63% of the turnover intention variance and 46% of the organizational commitment; scholars are welcome to investigate more antecedents to increase the model power and provide a robust explanation model.

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