Keywords

Immigrants, Company, Poland, United Kingdom, United Arab Emirates, Comparative Analysis

Introduction

The phenomenon of migration has been observed since people began to form larger clusters related to a given area. It means that migration has accompanied people practically since forever. Migration can be defined as a mass migration or movement of people between different countries or within one country to permanently change their place of stay or for a specified period (Bińkowski, 2017). It is also worth distinguishing two important definitions - emigration and immigration. The first term is understood as a departure from one country to the destination country for settlement. In contrast, immigration is understood as arriving at the destination country from the home country (Kaczmarczyk, 2015).

At present, migration is present all over the world. The progressive mobility of the population significantly affects the spread of this phenomenon. Migration estimates showed that a decade ago, around 214 million people, or 3.1% of the world's population, were classified as international migrants living outside their country of birth (www.tvp.info ...). The United Nations estimated that there were more than 272 million migrants worldwide in 2019, a number growing faster in recent years than the Earth's total population (www.paho.org...). It means that over 50 million migrants have arrived in 9 years. By 2019, Europe received the most significant number of international migrants, with 82 million. The second-largest continent is North America (mainly the United States), 59 million, while North Africa and West Asia welcomed around 49 million migrants (www.tvp.info ... ).

A good example is the European Union, where citizens living in this area still use the possibility of free movement between EU countries. The migration process can also be observed on a global scale. Over the past few years, international population migrations have become common in the modern world economy. This process mainly involves the movement of people permanently or for a specified period outside their home country (Kurowska-Pysz, Wróblewski & Szczepańska-Woszczyna, 2018).

In 1989, International Labour Organization (ILO) had classified international labor migration into two significant types: permanent settlement migration and temporary contractual migration. Settlement migration is a traditional type of migration where people migrate from one country to another to work and settle down (Škuflić, Krpan & Žmuk, 2018). At the same time, contractual, temporary migration occurs when a worker is officially granted permission to enter another country and work in a particular job (Bińkowski, 2017). The contractual migration is of two types: individual contract and group contract. The contract is established between the two parties: the employer and the employee, after agreeing on everything. However, after examining the international migration for employment during the 1970s and early 1980s, the ILO concluded that contractual migration exceeded the period stipulated in settlement migration policy regarding the number of migrants (globalna.ceo.org.pl…). This increase can put more pressure on hosting countries struggling to cope with the high number of migrants.

Economic immigration is the subject of many studies aimed at the most detailed examination of this phenomenon, which occurs on the labor market in almost every country. Much research has been devoted to immigrants' qualifications and professional skills influencing their performance in the labor market. They showed that the recognition of qualifications held by immigrants in the destination country increases the chances of finding a job (Annen, 2021) and influences the level of earnings obtained by them (Brücker et al., 2021). On the other hand, having lower education and a lack of qualifications cause’s difficulties in finding a job by immigrants (Annen, 2021). However, it also affects the level of their wages (Brücker et al., 2021).

On the other hand, having lower education and the lack of qualifications cause’s difficulties in finding a job by immigrants (Nicolescu & Drǎgan, 2020). Immigrants also create diversity in the workplace, but while cultural diversity can increase productivity through new ideas and innovation, linguistic diversity (which is an obstacle to communication) can increase communication costs and thus reduce productivity (Dale-Olsen & Finseraas, 2020). The subject of research in economic immigration is also the entrepreneurship of immigrants, which in times of the growing migration rate around the world, is a topic of great theoretical and practical importance. The effect of immigrant entrepreneurship is, among others increasing the income of the company and the immigrants themselves; in addition, they contribute to the transfer of knowledge, innovation, and economic growth in the country they came to (Brieger &Gielnik, 2021; Mattsson & Cassel, 2020; Caviggioli, Jensen & Scellato, 2020; Ngota, Rajkaran & Mang'unyi, 2019). Moreover, very often, the wages of immigrants are lower than those of native workers (Bertoli & Stillman, 2019).

It is worth mentioning that immigrants also encounter many barriers that may make it difficult to find a job and disrupt the process of assimilation into the new society. Immigrants are often discriminated against based on the country of origin (Busetta, Campolo & Panarello, 2020), gender (Kimhi & Hanuka-Taflia, 2019), barriers related to establishing cooperation with local stakeholders (Mattsson & Cassel, 2020), or even dress code (Weichselbaumer, 2020). At the same time, the enterprises employing immigrants can act as a force enabling their integration into the local labor market (Lämsä et al., 2019).

Many countries, perceived as attractive places to live, are becoming places of attraction for immigrants, which results in an increase in cultural diversity in a given area. On the other hand, because of the specificity of a given country, due to the geographical location, size, or level of the economy, immigration in a given country will differ from immigration in another country (Dacko-Pikiewicz & Wróblewski, 2017). Therefore, the purpose of this article is to conduct a comparative analysis of the phenomenon of immigration in three selected countries - Poland, the United Kingdom (UK), and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). As mentioned, the survey covered respondents from three countries - Poland, United Kingdom, and the United Arab Emirates. When selecting these three countries, two primary considerations were taken into account:

- The choice of Poland and the United Kingdom was dictated by the fact that both countries are European countries, until recently belonging to one European community, which could indicate similarities in the area of immigrants' work management,

- While the choice of a third country, the United Arab Emirates, was dictated by the desire to check the level of differences in immigrants' work management compared to European countries.

Bearing in mind that the phenomenon of economic immigration, separated depending on the country of destination of immigrants, the following research hypothesis was formulated:

H1: There are differences and similarities in immigrants’ work management depending on the country

In order to verify the formulated hypothesis, the conducted comparative analysis will identify the differences or similarities and obtain a comprehensive picture of immigration, which will enable the achievement of the adopted goal in determining the similarities and differences in the area of immigrants' work management in the chosen countries.

However, in the beginning, the very phenomenon of immigration was characterized concerning the countries of origin of the enterprises participating in the study.

Immigrants in Poland, UK, and UAE

Poland

Although immigrants are increasingly visible on the Polish labor market (Matkowska, 2013), the demand for immigrants in Poland is constantly growing (Matkowska 2013). It proves that employing immigrants is not only a current and dynamic trend but even a necessity in the context of maintaining the current growth pace of the Polish economy, taking into account current demographic trends (Chorągwicka - Majstrowicz, 2018). The democratic changes that took place at the end of the 20th century were of great importance for the migration processes in Poland. At that time, restrictions on the movement of people were lifted and thus led to the appearance of the first groups of foreigners in Poland. The opening of the borders encouraged many migrants from across the eastern border, who often illegally dealt with trade and small services. The geographical location of Poland, between the countries of the East and the more prosperous part, which was and still are, the western countries of Europe, made Poland a frequently visited transit route (Bińkowski, 2017).

Figure 1: Immigrants in Poland in Years 1989-2019 (IN TH.)

Source: Own elaboration based on Struktura ludności,

Moreover, in those years, Poland was also characterized by a favorable economic situation and political stability, making it an attractive destination for many migrants. When Poland entered the European Union in May 2004 and when the gradual opening of labor markets for citizens of new Member States began, this resulted in a new phenomenon, i.e., economic migration (Dacko-Pikiewicz & Wróblewski, 2017). The progressive phenomenon of integration of EU countries has meant that Poland is currently strongly associated with the provisions of EU law, which strive to unify the provisions on migration, asylum, and visa policy (Kaczmarczyk, 2015). It is also connected with Poland's joining the Schengen area in 2007, i.e., the area where free movement between the Member States within which border control of persons crossing the borders of the countries belonging to this zone has been lifted.

United Kingdom

Migrants have played an essential role in British history and influenced the economy, politics, culture, and relationships from 1250 to the present day. Due to the development of the factoring system during the industrial revolution, there was a massive migration from Ireland and Italy. Also, many merchant seamen from Scandinavia, Africa, the Caribbean, and Asia arrived and, in most cases, settled in the UK (BBC content). The United Kingdom tightened its immigration control in the early 20th century, but they still excepted many Belgians in World War One. It was also followed by many migrants from former colonies of the British Empire in Asia and Africa (Hansen, 2000). In January 1973, the UK became a member of the European Union. Therefore, Britain has seen a massive increase in migration from other EU states, as European nations were granted working rights without Visa requirements. The rapid increase of migration has increased the number of populations, which caused aggregated demand on finished goods to increase. Due to increased spending and increase demand for labor, real GDP has significantly increased; therefore, migration has positively affected the UK economy (Dustmann & Frattini, 2014).

Figure 2: The Share of Working Immigrants in UK (%).

Source: Own elaboration based on https://migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/

The introduction of free movement within the EU member states has created a more flexible market. During the mid-2000s, many Polish workers arrived to fulfill the shortage of semi-skilled laborers such as builders and plumbers. The increased migration has also created several social issues, as it became overcrowded in UK (Loxman et al., 2019). It resulted in falling living standards. Nowadays, Britain is facing a housing shortage. It is the fact that there is no willingness to build on increasingly scarce green belt land. Increased population has also caused increase pollution and congestion. Therefore it has negatively affected on quality of life.

United Arab Emirates

Prakash (2000) posited that excessive migration to the UAE started at the beginning of the 1970s and ended in the mid of the 1990s. Following that, this migration began to decline gradually due to changes in labor market needs and the immigration policy imposed by the UAE government. Such a decline in migration leads to a decline in business, trade, construction, and other economic activities. An example of this is the economic stagnation that the UAE economy faced after 1996.

Figure 3: UAE Population Broken Down By Nationals And Immigrants (%)

Source: Own elaboration based on (De Bel-Air,2015).

Zachariah, Prakash & Rajan (2002, 2003 and 2004) reported that since the 1970s, countries in the Arab Gulf had witnessed a revolution concerning the industrialization process due to specific social and economic changes. Such changes started after the rapid rise of oil prices in 1973 and the massive attention given to infrastructure in all sectors. These changes required the migration of many immigrants to be employed in the following sectors: construction, industry, trade, services, and the sector of domestic workers. It is worth mentioning that among the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, the UAE was the leading destination for migrant workers, mainly Indians (Mahdavi, 2011). The UAE has adopted a policy to encourage the migration of cheap labor from foreign countries to fill the labor shortage following labor as mentioned above the law (Bilsborrow, Hugo & Oberai, 1997).

Additionally, the Ministry of Labour has issued licenses to recruitment agents to bring workers from other countries. Unskilled migrants have been exempted from labor laws as they protect their rights. However, strict restrictions are imposed on migrants who want to bring their wives and children (Zachariah, Prakash & Rajan, 2004). In order to prevent migrants from changing their jobs, their passports are kept with the employer. The migrant workers live in certain places called labor camps, and they are not allowed to live outside them (Zachariah, Mathew & Rajan, 2001). Policies related to employment contracts, sponsorship, and regulations, labor disputes, restrictions on bringing dependents, labor camps, and measures taken to reduce the number of unskilled workers have created severe challenges for immigrants, especially Indian workers who represent the most significant percentage of immigrants (Zachariah, Prakash & Rajan, 2002).

From the above-presented countries, it is visible that immigration varies greatly depending on the country of destination. Therefore, a comparative analysis of labor immigration in these three countries was conducted.

Methodology

Based on the conducted critical analysis of the available literature, studies, and reports on immigration, a questionnaire was developed, addressed to enterprises operating in the countries covered by the study and employing immigrants. The study covered 168 managers from Poland, 47 managers from UAE and 70 managers from UK, dealing with immigrants’ work management.

The survey questionnaire consisted of 19 questions, covering issues related to:

- Size, the field of activity, and legal form of the enterprise,

- The number of employed immigrants and their age,

- Reasons for employment and forms of work performed by foreign employees,

- Forms of employment of immigrants and using the offer of a temporary employment agency,

The developed research questionnaire became the subject of a pilot study involving ten companies from each country. The pilot study aimed to check whether the questions contained in the questionnaires are straightforward and easy to understand and to identify issues that need improvement. After conducting the pilot study and introducing corrections (mainly in clarifying the questions), the main study was conducted. The primary study was conducted in the fourth quarter of 2020 using the CAWI method. In order to select the research sample, the simple random selection method was used, which is the simplest method of selecting the research sample. It is based on the direct and unlimited selection of surveyed units for the statistical sample directly from the general population and without restrictions (Sheskin, 2011). The survey questionnaire was addressed only to companies employing immigrants. The respondents were managers of the surveyed companies. When starting the questionnaire interview, each of them had to determine whether immigrants are employed in the enterprise they represent. Providing a positive answer to this question allowed for further participation in the study. It was possible to examine the entire group of companies without eliminating the questionnaires for legal reasons. The general structure of enterprises in Poland, the UK and UAE in 2020 was as follows:

The minimum sample size was calculated assuming a confidence level of 90%, a fraction size of 0.5, and a maximum error of 10%. Bearing in mind that in Poland, 168 questionnaires were qualified for further research, in the UK - 70 questionnaires and UAE - 47 correctly completed questionnaires, it can be assumed that the obtained sample sizes for each of the surveyed countries can be obtained treated as representative.

Then, based on the obtained research results, a database was created, which in the form of a file as the input material for the conducted analyzes. The following statistical methods were used in the analysis process:

- Descriptive statistics, which made it possible to present the characteristics of the research sample. This method aims to summarize the obtained data set and draw some basic conclusions and generalizations on the topic under study. In this article, the use of the descriptive statistics method made it possible to obtain a general picture of the characteristics of the enterprises that participated in the research in terms of legal forms, size, profile, and the number of employed immigrants.

- Pearson's x² tests of independence and likelihood ratio, which are based on the maximum likelihood theory, in order to find significant statistical relationships between the selected criteria (Campbell, 2007). In this article, the purpose of this test was to check if there are significant statistical relationships between the country where the companies operated and the age of the employed immigrants, the use of temporary employment agency services, forms of employment of immigrants, types of work performed by them and reasons of employing.

- Analysis of the main components (factor analysis) to distinguish the scales of attitudes towards foreigners. It is used to detect the structure and general regularities in the relationships between the studied variables, to verify the detected relationships and regularities, and above all, to reduce the number of variables and to describe and classify the studied objects in newly created spaces, which are defined by new variables (Rencher, 2002). The factor analysis used aimed to check whether the main groups can be distinguished among the attitudes' assessment towards immigrants.

- Reliability analysis, the use of which makes it possible to assess strength whether a given scale measures what it should measure - and thus to what extent individual questions measure the full scale (Olbrych, 2009).

SPSS and Excel statistical software were used to carry out the above analyzes.

Results

The Descriptive Statistics Results

The survey covered 285 respondents, 168 managers working in companies from Poland (58,9%), 47 managers working in companies from the UAE (16.5%), and 70 managers working in companies from the UK (24.6%). And their opinions about immigrant’s work management were the subject of the conducted research. The most significant number of respondents from companies operating in Poland and the UK indicated a limited liability company as a legal form. Most respondents from companies operating in the UAE indicated a different legal form (figure 4).

Figure 4: The Legal Forms of Companies

The respondents working in Poland and UK worked in smaller enterprises than the respondents working in the UAE (figure 5).

Figure 5: The Size of the Company

Due to the variety of business profiles of the surveyed companies, all industries are summarized in the table below.

Concerning Polish enterprises, the most significant number of them operates in construction (54.8%), transport and logistics (13.1%), and services (11.9%). The most significant number of surveyed companies in the UAE operate in services (31.9%), education (14.9%), and medical products (8.5%). Moreover, most companies from the UK deal with transport and logistics (25.7%), services (22.9%), and clothing (8.6%). In the case of other industries, a considerable fragmentation is visible, because in most cases, the share of enterprises operating in these industries does not exceed 5%.

The majority of people working in companies operating in Poland indicated from 1 to 4 employed immigrants (figure 6).

Figure 6: The Number of Immigrants employed in the Surveyed Enterprises.

Most people are working in the UAE indicated more than 100 employed immigrants. 5-9 employed immigrants indicated the most significant number of people working in the UK.

The Comparative Analysis

Based on the value of the likelihood ratio, it was found that there was a statistically significant correlation between the country where the companies operated and the age of the employed immigrants, l(12)=23,27, p<0,05 (figure 7).

Figure 7: Age of Employed Immigrants (%)

Based on the results of pairwise comparisons, it was found that statistically significant differences existed between Poland,l(4)=9,70, p<0,05, and UK, l(4)=12,48, p<0,05, and between UK and UAE, l(3)=8,87, p<0,05. Immigrants employed in the UK were younger than immigrants employed in the UAE.

Based on the value of Pearson's χ² independence test, it was found that there was a statistically significant correlation between the country and the use of temporary employment agency services (table 3).

Based on the results of pairwise comparisons, it was found that statistically significant differences existed between Poland and the UAE χ²(1)=11,25, p<0,001, and the UK, χ²(1)=9,17, p<0,01, and between UK and UAE, χ²(1)=12,01, p<0,001. In companies operating in the UK, the services of temporary employment agencies were used least frequently. In the UAE, the services of temporary employment agencies were used more often than in Poland.

The distribution of the form of employment of immigrants in the compared groups was also examined. The list was supplemented with the values of likelihood ratios (Table 4).

Statistically significant relationships were found between the country where the company operates and most forms of employment, except for self-employment. A fixed-term, full-time employment contract and a mandate contract were most often used in Poland. Part-time, fixed-term employment contracts were most often used in the UK. An open-ended full-time employment contract was most often used in the UK. The most common part-time employment contract was in the UAE.

Concerning the type of work performed by immigrants, statistically, significant relationships were found between the country in which the company operates and the performance of all types of work. Most often, immigrants performed the work of unskilled manual workers in Poland. The work of qualified manual workers was most often performed by immigrants in Poland and the UAE. Immigrants most often performed the work of office workers in the UAE (table 5).

However, it should be borne in mind that the above results reflect the situations in the companies that participated in the survey. While in the case of Poland and Great Britain, the results obtained may be more consistent with reality, the results obtained among UAE enterprises may slightly distort the accurate picture. As the table shows, the majority of immigrants in the UAE are skilled manual workers. However, it is well known that in the UAE, a vast number of immigrants find jobs, performing basic manual work, living in labor camps, working for low wages, and not getting paid for additional overtime.

Statistically significant relationships were found between the country in which the company operates and the reporting of all the analyzed reasons. The lack of employees with the required qualifications, lower employment costs, high availability of employees, and greater efficiency of employees were most often reported in Poland. The knowledge of the country's market comes from, and the diversity was most often reported in UAE.

The last stage of the research was to analyze attitudes towards immigrants in the form of a principal component analysis (fig. 8).

Figure 8: Scree Plot Obtained from Principal Component Analysis

The shape of the scree plot indicated a one-dimensional solution. Table 7 presents the values of the factor loadings obtained for individual questions measuring the attitude towards immigrants.

One scale of attitudes towards immigrants was distinguished. The results were calculated by averaging the number of points for answers to the individual questions making up the scale. The reliability of the measurement using such a separate scale, measured with the Cronbach's method, was high and amounted to 0.86.

Discussion

The results of the research presented in this article indicate that the phenomenon of immigration is characterized by great diversity, mainly depending on the country of destination, earning potential and legal conditions. In Poland, most immigrants come from Ukraine, but Poles themselves constitute the largest immigrant group in Great Britain. The UAE is a target of labor immigration for residents of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. The common point between Poland, the UK, and the UAE is that they offer better earning opportunities than the immigrants' home countries. However, the very structure of immigrant employment and management differs from country to country. In Poland, the highest percentage of enterprises indicated that the number of employed immigrants usually does not exceed ten people. On the other hand, a negligible number of enterprises (14 companies) indicated the employment level of immigrants at more than 50 employees. Young and very young immigrants are most often employed. Almost half of the enterprises (40.5%) use temporary work services when employing immigrants. The most common form of employing immigrants was a full-time employment contract and a mandate contract. Most often, unskilled and qualified blue-collar workers find employment. The most frequently mentioned reasons for employing immigrants include the lack of employees with the required qualifications, lower employment costs, and high availability of immigrants. In UK, for instance, the situation is somewhat similar to that of Poland; almost the same number of companies (22) indicated the employment of immigrants ranging from 10 to 49 employees, and the number of employed immigrants exceeds 50 employees. The largest group of British companies indicated that the employment rate of immigrants was between 5 and 9 employees. Young and mature immigrants are most often employed. A small percentage of enterprises (20%) use temporary work services when employing immigrants. The most common form of employing immigrants was a full-time employment contract for an indefinite period, but there are also contracts in the form of fixed-term full-time or part-time employment contracts. Most often, unskilled and qualified blue-collar workers find employment. The most frequently mentioned reasons for employing immigrants include lower employment costs and knowledge of the country's market where the employee comes from. But, in the UAE, concerning the number of employed immigrants, the highest percentage of the surveyed companies indicated more than 100 employees. It can be explained by the fact that in the general group of the surveyed companies, large enterprises accounted for the most significant part (44%). Young and mature immigrants are most often employed. More than half of the enterprises (68.1%) use temporary work services when employing immigrants. Almost half of the enterprises (48.9%) most often employ immigrants in full-time fixed-term employment contracts. The second place is occupied by a full-time employment contract for an indefinite period, and almost a quarter of enterprises (23.4%) use a contract for specific work when employing immigrants. Qualified manual workers, as well as specialists and managers, are most often employed. The most frequently mentioned reasons for employing immigrants include diversity that favors the development of the enterprise, knowledge of the country's market where the employee comes from, knowledge of foreign languages, and lower employment costs.

Conclusion

Concerning descriptive statistics, the similarities between Polish and UK enterprises concern mainly the form of business activity (private limited companies), their size (10-49 employees), and business profile (services). While in the case of companies from UAE, most of them operate in the form of a general partnership, are big companies, but most of them operate in services, as companies from Poland and UK. Nevertheless, in regards to the number of employed immigrants, polish companies usually hire 1-4 immigrants, British companies - between 5 and 9 immigrants and companies from UAE - more than 100 immigrants.

The most significant similarity can be observed in the age of employed immigrants; all surveyed companies usually hire young people between 25 and 35 old. Companies from Poland and UAE usually offer fixed-term, while British companies offer Full-time employment contracts for an indefinite period. However, in the case of types of work performed by immigrants, there is a similarity between polish and British companies, in which immigrants perform the work of unskilled manual workers. Moreover, companies from UAE indicate skilled manual workers in turn. Also, companies from Poland and UK, as the reason for employing immigrants, indicate a shortage of employees with the required qualifications. In contrast, UAE companies indicate the diversity that favors the development of the enterprise. To sum up, it can be stated that the research hypothesis: There are differences and similarities in immigrants ’work management depending on the country, has been confirmed.

It can be stated that while in the case of Polish and British enterprises, there are some similarities in the approach to employing immigrants and managing their work, the situation is entirely different in the case of UAE. It may be because Poland and the UK are located on one European continent, which, however, to some extent constitutes a coherent cultural area, expressed in similarities. On the other hand, the UAE, located on a different continent, is a separate cultural unit, manifested, for example, in the approach to managing the work of immigrants.

The conducted research made it possible to obtain a complete picture of immigrants' work management and constitute a perfect starting point for further research in this area. The conducted research may constitute a background for further exploration of this area of research. Identifying significant similarities and differences in the area of immigrants' work management in the studied countries enables further expansion of the scope of research. The presented comparison between these three countries in immigrants' work management can be relevant for policymakers and other stakeholders interested in this field.

However, there are number of limitations to the study. First of all, the research was carried out in the fourth quarter of 2020, i.e., during the global Covid-19 pandemic, which affected the lives of individuals and, to a large extent, the company's operations. It can therefore be assumed that the results obtained were determined mainly by the presence of a pandemic. That is why it is worth carrying out similar research later, after the pandemic is over, and conducting business activities in the so-called normal conditions. It will allow verifying the reliability of the first results.

Another limitation is the insufficient size of the research sample; thus, the obtained results can be interpreted as a fragment of the phenomenon from a particular whole, which, however, does not allow for the generalization of the results, which constitutes a particular risk in estimation results. Therefore, the presented research results do not reflect the phenomenon of employing immigrants in a given country in 100%, but rather represent a set of circumstances in the companies that took part in the study. As indicated, the respondents were managers of enterprises employing immigrants, which means that the research results present the point of view of one group of employees. Therefore, it is worth expanding the group of respondents to include other employees (age, gender, education) and the immigrants themselves in subsequent studies, which will enable a broader, more cross-sectional picture of the management of immigrants' work to be obtained. For companies, this type of study would have to be done in terms of size while maintaining the sample's representativeness.

It would also be worth inviting companies that operate in different regions of the world - South America and North America or Australia to the following research. These regions are often the destination of economic immigrants, which will also contribute to a complete picture of immigrant work management.

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