Keywords

Entrepreneurship, Teacher, perspective, Education, Integration

Introduction

Entrepreneurship Education (EE) signify to the development of practical skills that will enable students to excel in an increasingly competitive and uncertain world. Students have the opportunity to acquire the types of competencies that will assist them throughout their life and to gain meaning from the content that they are learning (Hardie et al., 2020). It is a form of education that is aimed to equip pupils with entrepreneurial skills and prepare them to explore different opportunities in their life. Integration of EE is the process of embedding the concepts of entrepreneurial skills or concepts in the existing curriculum (Lamloumi, 2013).

Therefore, Entrepreneurship education is increasingly being recognized and discussed as a driver of economic development and sustainability around the world (Greene et al., 2015). The majority of educational institutions have come to recognize the significance of providing students with entrepreneurship education and assert that such an education equips students with innovative ideas, skills, and the capacity to think entrepreneurially and respond to societal challenges (Bikse et al., 2016).

In South Africa, the government has built systems for young people to be dynamic and interested in business projects to foster an enterprising spirit (Nchu, 2015). Entrepreneurship education programs aim to help students become creative and productive while gaining entrepreneurial skills. The Nigerian government has made it a priority to ensure that entrepreneurship education is provided at all levels, beginning with the most primary schools. Its purpose is to equip students with the information, skills, and drive necessary to foster successful entrepreneurial endeavors in a range of different contexts (Audu et al., 2019).

Theoretical and Empirical Literature Review

The study was guided by social learning theory by Albert Bandura. The theory postulates that people learn from one another through observation, imitation, and modeling (Bandura , 1977). The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it includes attention, memory, and motivation. Motivation could be considered one of the most important principles of the social learning theory. Motivating students will help them build their self-efficacy which will help them to approach any challenges they may face in a better way. Bandura further explains that people tend to observe others in their environment in determining different actions being performed. Moreover, he claims that people tend to endorse and inhibit behaviors based on the different reinforcements received by their social agents for proving a specific behavior in shaping their own behaviors.

It is undeniable that teachers perception matter because, as Korhonen et al. (2012) point out that teachers are the ones who translate entrepreneurial education into instructional practice. The aim of studying teachers’ perceptions concerning entrepreneurship education is needed to capture their understanding and suggestions for improvement (Hakizimana, 2020). The study by Zenner et al. (2017) examined the extent to which entrepreneurship education was perceived and implemented around Bangalore in India. They concluded that the way skills were acquired through instruction influenced the degree to which a person understood the idea of entrepreneurship education. Because of this, they developed the hypothesis that there was a demand to improve the alignment of entrepreneurial education in India with vocational education and training.

Likewise, Deveci (2016) investigated the extent to which pre-service science teachers understood the ideas of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial qualities as well as their perceptions of such notions. The findings pointed out that, each of the pre-service science teachers had a constrained and insufficient comprehension of the idea of entrepreneurship. He suggested that there was a need to develop educational content that could expose pre-service science teachers to key concepts of entrepreneurship education to enable them to develop skills in identifying entrepreneurial ventures in the context of science teacher training.

In particular, the findings from the Deveci study refer to the need to develop educational content that can expose pre-service science teachers to key concepts of entrepreneur education. Likewise, Bacanak (2013) in his study also cemented that, teachers did not have sufficient knowledge about entrepreneurship concepts, and as a result had a different insight on how to teach entrepreneurial skills. On top of that, the study conducted in India, Malaysia and Singapore aimed to investigate commitment in teaching entrepreneurship in business schools, suggested that most of staff did not get the required in-service trainings related to entrepreneurship. The study by Kalimasi came to the conclusion that, to a significant degree, there is still a conceptual disagreement among stakeholders over the meaning of the term entrepreneurship. This conceptual conflict of the term has influenced the implementation of EE to the extent that there are certain self-reliance activities in primary schools, but they are not under the label of entrepreneurship. Ikävalko et al. (2009) studied entrepreneurship education with a group of Finnish teachers and discovered a surprising lack of cohesiveness in definitions of core concepts and most importantly between aims and results.

When the pupils should be taught entrepreneurship education is another issue which is perceived differently among teachers. Literature suggest that entrepreneurship education should start at childhood to spark pupils with curiosity and develop a culture of entrepreneurship at early age. Therefore, teaching entrepreneurship education skills to young pupils at an early age will help them later in their lives. Hassi further suggest that children's childhood and adolescence years are the optimal time to instill entrepreneurial skills and talents for them to benefit favorably from entrepreneurship and performance.

When pupils are exposed to entrepreneurship education at a young age, they will have a head start on developing the skills necessary for successful jobs in the business world. Therefore, children in primary schools will become better prepared for jobs in the new economy as a result of entrepreneurship education. For that reason, Studdard et al. suggest that the entrepreneurship curriculum, which is developed at the university level, should begin to provide indices of how entrepreneurship can be integrated into the existing primary education curriculum.

In this context, teachers perceive that, if entrepreneurship education is introduced from the primary level, it will help in providing basic skills that can be learned at the university level. With this improvement, the university will be able to build on the skills they learned in primary school. The same idea was presented by Douglas (2014) who argued that if entrepreneurship education will be exposed to the pupils in primary school it will create awareness and encourages them to inculcate a positive attitude towards business start-up.

Correspondingly, it is further perceived that entrepreneurship education equips pupils with problem solving skills and enable them to think creatively. Fen (2017) studied science teachers' perception on integrating entrepreneurship education within the school curriculum. The findings revealed that most teachers’ perception on entrepreneurship is all about being active, creative, and productive. Other scientific professors agreed that entrepreneurship education is about marketing a product, being creative, producing profitable company ideas, being daring and successful. With respect to these findings, if teachers perceive that EE makes pupils active and creative, it will help a lot in preparing their future especially if they start being taught at a young age. Henceforth, teachers' perception is critical in the whole exercise of integrating entrepreneurship education.

Given the high unemployment rates in various African nations, the idea that entrepreneurship education will prepare students for self-employment is a topic worth discussing. Entrepreneurship has been seen as one of the fundamental ingredients to economic success, providing a substantial contribution to the solution of the unemployment problem, which is critical at a time when several developed and developing countries face youth unemployment. Entrepreneurship education can therefore help pupils because the more they are exposed to entrepreneurship education, the more interested they will get in entrepreneurship, allowing them to start their own business and employ themselves.

The study by Onuma (2016) investigated the plight of unemployment among Nigerian university graduates as well as how entrepreneurship education prepares students for job development. The findings revealed that, university graduates' unemployment was shown to be a recurring problem. The study suggested that entrepreneurial education should be urgently prioritized and that the school and tertiary curricula should be changed to include entrepreneurship education. The transfer of graduates to self-employment can thus be facilitated most effectively by incorporating entrepreneurship education into school curriculum (Daneshjoovash & Hosseini, 2018).

The study by Hatak et al. (2015) found that as people get older, their chances of doing so become less likely. The study by Zissimopoulos and Karoly (2007) suggest that younger people tend to be more active in new firm creation than older people. Henceforth, if a large group of teachers are older, it is likely that the class will lack motivation for entrepreneurial venture from the teacher. To cement on this, Choo & Wong (2006) argue that people are mostly supposed to set up their own businesses between the ages of 25 to 34. However, since many studies are contradictory in studying the relationship between age and entrepreneurial intention, more in-depth research is still needed.

In terms of gender, some studies confirm that men are more entrepreneurial than women as they are good at creating new venture than women. The study by Kelley et al. (2017) found that women are less likely than men to engage in entrepreneurship activities. However, this argument is contrary to Ahmed et al. (2010) who verified that a person's gender is not a key factor in determining whether or not they would start their own business. Additionally, Soetanto et al. (2010) find no evidence that gender has a role in the decisions that students make regarding whether or not to engage in entrepreneurial activities. Considering this, the question of gender and the intention to start a business has not yet been satisfactorily answered, even though the answer may differ from country to country.

The introduction of entrepreneurship courses at all levels of schooling responds to the government's policy measures, which aim to engage educated Tanzanians in the world of entrepreneurship and self-employment through various methods. Although there have been efforts to integrate entrepreneurship education at all levels level, only small changes have been noticed. There has been an immense number of studies on entrepreneurship eduation such as (Kalimasi & Herman, 2016; Mwasalwiba, 2010). However, less have been postulated on Teachers' Perspectives on the Integration of Entrepreneurship Education in Tanzanian Public Primary Schools. For that reason a number of questions remain unanswered, for example; what are the teachers’ perceptions on the integration of EE in public primary schools and what is the correlation between teachers’ demographic characteristics and their perception towards the integration of EE in primary schools? These questions lay the foundation for this study.

Methods

This study employed a mixed research approach. This method refers to the process of gathering, evaluating, and combining quantitative and qualitative approach in a single study to comprehend a research problem. The primary reason for using a mixed technique was that it may be more effective than using only one method. Therefore, quantitative approach was used to seek answers from teachers on teacher’s perception on integrating entrepreneurship education in primary schools. The researcher used qualitative approach to examine how head teachers view the integration of EE in primary schools.

Moreover, the study employed concurrent triangulation research design whereby qualitative and quantitative data collection were conducted at the same time. This design was chosen because it allowed the researcher to use qualitative data to provide interpretation for quantitative data. This study was conducted in the Dar es Salaam region in Kigamboni district. The population for this study included primary school teachers and head teachers. The study employed 110 respondents to achieve the study intention and compromise with time. The sample included, one head teacher from each school and ten teachers from each school.

Simple random sampling (SRS) was used to choose wards and schools for the study. Each ward among nine wards in Kigamboni was given an equal chance of being selected randomly. Similarly, the technique was used to select ten schools out of sixteen schools within the selected wards. Purposive sampling was used to sample 10 head teachers (HT). Similarly, teachers took part in this research because they are the most important people in charge of implementing entrepreneurship education. It employed interview and questionnaire. Interviews are often used in qualitative research approaches to obtain in-depth information from their natural contexts. On the other hand, questionnaires are used in quantitative research to generalize relevant research findings. A self-reporting structured Likert scale were used to collect the quantitative data related to the teachers’ perception.

The quantitative data were firstly analyzed by using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The researcher produced descriptive statistics such as the collected data's percentages, means, standard deviations, and frequency distributions. The Pearson correlation test was used to figure out the relationship between the demographic data and the teachers perceptions on the integration of entrepreneurship education. Likewise, Qualitative data were analyzed by following thematic analysis procedures. The themes were reviewed to obtain a subheadings. Finally, the report was produced in a narration form. To adhere to the ethical issues, the researcher went through different procedures.

Results

This section presents findings that were gathered from the field. Two research objectives were presented namely; assessment of teacher’s perception on integration of EE in primary schools in Kigamboni district and the relationship between demographic factors and teachers perceptions.

Teachers Demographic Factors

This section presents the general information and demographic characteristics of the respondents, and these are summarized in table 1 as follows:

Table 1 Teachers Demographic Information (N=100)
Category	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Gender
Male	30	30
Female	70	70
Total	100	100
Education Level
Grade III Certificate	21	20
Ordinary Diploma	40	44
Bachelor’s degree	35	33
Master’s Degree and above	4	4
Total	107	100
Marital Status
Single	32	30
Married	61	63
Divorced	5	4
Widowed	2	2
Total	100	100
Age
18-34	44	41
35-44	41	45
45 and above	15	14
Total	100	100

With reference to table 1, most of the participants of the study were females (n = 70, 70 %,) and the rest were male teachers (n=30, 30%). Therefore, one could establish that there is improved gender equality in the workplaces. Most of the teachers were holders of ordinary diploma in education (44%, n = 47), followed by bachelor’s degree holders (35%, n = 33). This imply that teachers have a required capacity to integrate EE in their workplaces. Majority of the teachers had an age below 44 years old (89%, n=89) while the rest were above 44(11%, n= 11). From the age distribution, one can recognize that most of the teachers are mature enough and energetic to perform well their duties, hence they can effectively integrate entrepreneurship education if enabled.

Relationship between Demographic factors and Teachers Perception on Integration of Entrepreneurship Education

Pearson’s correlation test was performed between teachers’ perception scale and the demographic factors as summarized in table 2.

Table 2 Pearson’s Correlation Matrix of the Relationship between Demographic Factors and Teachers’ Perception on Effectiveness of Integrating Entrepreneurship Education in Primary Schools
Category		1	2	3	4	5
Gender	Pearson Correlation	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)
Education Level	Pearson Correlation	0.177	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.069
Age	Pearson Correlation	-0.151	0.084	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.12	0.387
Marital Status	Pearson Correlation	0.023	-0.063	0.481**	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.817	0.52	0
Perception	Pearson Correlation	0.091	0.021	-0.321**	-0.131	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.35	0.828	0.001	0.178

Results from table 3 reveal that, the age of participants was established to have a significant positive association with the perception on the integration of entrepreneurship in public primary schools. Pearson Correlation values were recorded to be r =−0.321** and p = 0.001. This implies that teachers in primary school have positive perception with the process of integrating entrepreneurship education. They might be ready to implement it if conducive environment will be created for them. Other factors such as marital status, level of education and gender were revealed to have weak correlation with teachers’ perspectives. It implies that if good environment will be created in primary schools, teachers will be able to implement EE.

Table 3 Teachers’ Perceptions on the Integration of Entrepreneurship Education at in   Primary Schools
Statement	Disagree		Not Sure		Agree		Mean	SD
	n	%	n	%	n	%
I believe that teachers have explicit knowledge about the meaning of entrepreneurship.	30	28	12	11	65	61	2.3	0.89
Teachers have a clear idea of how to integrate entrepreneurship education with primary school pupils.	43	40	22	21	42	39	2	0.9
Seminars and workshop have been provided to teachers on how to teach entrepreneurship education to primary school pupils.	62	58	29	27	16	15	1.6	0.74
It is true that entrepreneurship education engages pupils with business ideas and becomes self-employed in their future.	15	14	8	8	84	78	2.6	0.72
Entrepreneurship education helps primary school pupils become creative and innovative.	17	16	11	10	79	74	2.6	0.75
I perceive that primary school pupils are equipped with entrepreneurial skills and become promising entrepreneurs of tomorrow.	24	22	25	23	56	53	2.3	0.82
Entrepreneurship education should start at childhood, at the primary level rather than at the university level.	5	5	11	10	91	85	2.8	0.5
Entrepreneurship education enables pupils to think out of the box and help them to know about the essence of the business idea.	1	1	10	9	104	97	2.9	0.35
Entrepreneurship education helps pupils in identifying their career before a higher level of education.	6	6	16	15	85	79	2.7	0.56
Integrating entrepreneurship education to primary pupils prepares them to identify and address challenges and opportunities.	7	7	10	9	107	84	2.8	0.56
Total								2.5

Likewise, the perceptions of head teachers regarding EE were assessed. They had different views. They pointed out that EE is for business matters only. It is business teachers who can integrate EE. One of the head teachers narrated that…our teachers do not have a great understanding of EE. Most of them know that it is only commercial studies. I personally think that if they are well educated, they can teach (HTS9, Interview, April 4, 2022).

On the other hand, the perspective that EE should start at childhood was positively perceived by one of the head teachers as he claimed that teaching EE from primary school is very important as children will start to acquire entrepreneurial ideas at an early age (HTS1, April, 2022). Head teachers at Schools 2 and 3, had almost similar perspectives. They nodded that integration of entrepreneurship education into pre, and primary education should start in childhood as it will instill an entrepreneurial mindset in children. If children are equipped with entrepreneurial skills they will be more creative and innovative. Teachers argued that integrating EE will allow pupils to use their learned knowledge in real-life activities and help them work at a higher level of thinking. This view was asserted by the head teacher from school three that: -Equipping pupils with entrepreneurial skills will provide them with opportunity to use their knowledge in the real-life activities and help them in solving different challenges in their lives. (HTS 9, April, 2022).

Similarly, the issue of learning entrepreneurship education was perceived as to find and address challenges and opportunities in pupils’ lives. It was also claimed that entrepreneurship education helps pupils to face the adversities which lie ahead in life. This was argued by head teachers from school 4 and school 7 that; -What I believe is that entrepreneurship education will help pupils a lot in creating various opportunities around them in their lives before and after graduating (HTS4, April 4, 2022). The responses from the interviews show that teachers have positive perception with the integration of EE into public primary school similar to the findings from the likert scale.

Teachers’ Perceptions on the Integration of Entrepreneurship Education in Public Primary Schools

This objective assessed teachers’ perceptions on the integration of entrepreneurship education in public primary schools. A self-administered likert scale was used.

From table 3 above, it is evident that, the mean values of all items in this subscale fell under the agreed category. One can assert a positive perception (Mean =2.5) on the integration of entrepreneurship education among the public primary school teachers in Kigamboni district. This assertion is due to the high prevalence of six items out of ten, which showed teachers’ positive perception since most of the teachers (more than 80%, n > 76) showed to agree with them. The standard deviation of individual items was not greater than 1, showing that respondents have relatively similar responses on these items.

Discussion

The demographic variables such as age, gender, and level of education were applied for predicting teachers’ readiness to integrate entrepreneurship education. In figuring out their relationship, Pearson Correlation was determined, and significant positive relationship was found with age of the participants. The findings are in consistence with Hatak et al. (2015); Zissimopoulos & Karoly, 2007) who pointed out the association between entrepreneurial activities with both age and education level of the participants. In line with the findings in table 3 the age of participants was established to have a significant positive association with the teachers perception on the integration of entrepreneurship education in public primary schools as the Pearson Correlation values were recorded to be r =0.321** and p = 0.001. This implies that teachers’ perceptions are of importance in the process of integrating EE.

Correspondingly, since the age of most teachers were between 18 and 44 years old, this could possibly show that teachers are strong and more energetic that they can integrate entrepreneurship education in public primary school. The findings concur with Choo and Wong (2006) who argued that people are mostly decided to set up their own businesses between the ages of 25 to 34. However, other demographic factors as shown in table 3 such as gender (p=035), education level (p=0.828), and marital status (p=0.178) were found to have less influence. The findings are in congruence with the study by Ahmed et al. (2010) and Soetanto et al. (2010) who verified that a person's gender is not a key factor in determining whether they would be able to integrate entrepreneurship education.

Moreover, a positive perception was observed among the public primary school teachers in integrating EE. This assertion is due to the mean of 2.5, approximately equal to three and therefore in the agreed category. This is inconsistent with Deveci (2016) who concluded that most teachers lack comprehension idea of entrepreneurship hence they can hardly implement EE. Likewise, the findings do not coincide with (Bacanak, 2013; Kalimasi, 2018) who argued that teachers did not have sufficient knowledge about entrepreneurship concepts.

The findings show that, teachers perceive that entrepreneurship education should start at early age. The findings are consistent with Hassi (Douglas, 2014) who suggested that EE should start at childhood to spark pupils with curiosity and develop a culture of entrepreneurship. The findings highlighted some advantages of introducing this education at a young age including, increased self-efficacy and preparedness for the new knowledge-based economy as presented by Obschonka et al. The findings generally highlight that when pupils are exposed to EE at a young age, they will have a head start in developing the skills necessary for successful jobs in the business world.

Likewise, findings concur with Omer & Aljaaidi who argued that entrepreneurship education exposed to entrepreneurship skills that will allow them to initiate their own business and employ themselves. It also coincide with Onuma (2016) who suggested that entrepreneurial education should be urgently prioritized as it helps youth to employ themselves. These results are as well consistent with Carpentier & Rodríguez (2019) and Lindner (2019) who point out that entrepreneurship education can improve the attitudes of the pupils and prepare them to address different challenges, job creation, creativity, and innovation. The idea that entrepreneurship education help pupils to think out of the box and be equipped with entrepreneurial skills was supported by Fen (2017) who revealed that most teachers believe entrepreneurship is being active, creative, and productive.

The different perceptions expressed by respondents about the integration of entrepreneurship education clearly suggest that teachers are prepared. Teachers believe that entrepreneurship education will benefit pupils in a variety of ways, including engaging them with business ideas and enabling them to become self-employed; improving problem-solving skills and increasing creativity; equipping students with skills and enabling them to think creatively; identifying and addressing challenges and opportunities in their lives

Conclusion

Based on the finding, the study clearly reveals that teachers have a positive perception of the integration of entrepreneurship education. It is time to effectively integrate entrepreneurship education at primary school rather than at the university level as it teaches pupils crucial life skills that will help them navigate their uncertain future. The findings revealed that the integration of entrepreneurship education at public primary schools is implemented at a low level. Even though teachers have a positive perception toward the process, several challenges have been listed. The challenges mentioned by teachers through questionnaires and interviews require government intervention. Government intervention should focus on building capacity for teachers by ensuring in-service training, improving infrastructure and reviewing the curriculum to see if the number of periods can be adjusted. Generally, assessing the implementation of entrepreneurship education at the primary school level is of importance based on the interest to scholars, policymakers, education leaders, educators, and parents.

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Received: 1-June-2024, Manuscript No. AJEE-24-15031; Editor assigned: 3-June-2024, PreQC No. AJEE-24-15031(PQ); Reviewed: 19-June-2024, QC No. AJEE-24-15031; Revised: 24-June-2024, Manuscript No. AJEE-24-15031(R); Published:28-June-2024