Keywords

Glass Ceiling, Glass Cliff, Women, Career Advancement, Career Barriers, Gender, Diversity.

Introduction

An organization’s growth derives from diversity of thoughts, opinions and decisions. Gender diversity has always been the talk of prime importance but globally, women still encounter challenges when it comes to their career progression at workplace. Despite the enormous benefits of gender diversity in leadership roles and senior positions, organizations have made only little progress in this direction. Women employees at workplace tend to face many real and invisible barriers when it comes to their career progression.

Barriers which are tough but invisible has been termed as ‘Glass Ceiling’ effect in several studies Afza & Newaz (2008); Bazazo et al. (2017); Jain & Mukherji (2010). With more than three decades, the existence of glass ceiling barriers has been proved by many researchers Afza & Newaz (2008); Fisher et al. (1993); Jain & Mukherji (2010). Although women as well as a part of society is struggling hard to shatter this glass ceiling, but it doesn’t seem to be the end of ‘think manager – think male’ trend Schulz & Enslin (2014). Those who tried to break the glass ceiling seems to have been trapped in the ‘Glass Cliff’ phenomenon, which is far more precarious situation for the career of women at middle and senior level management Vetter (2021); Xiang et al. (2017). The present study is an attempt to rationalize the phenomenon of ‘Glass Cliff’ as the next level of hurdle at workplace after breaking the ‘Glass Ceiling’ by women in their career progression towards leadership roles. The methodology used in the study is based on review of extant literature including research articles, reports and published data relevant to glass ceiling and glass cliff.

Glass Ceiling: The Familiar Term

A metaphor which means ‘an invisible barrier which act as a roadblock to women and minorities from rising upward towards senior positions or leadership roles in their career’ (Boyd Karen S., 2008; Federal glass ceiling commission (1995). This term was officially coined in the mid-eighties by Wall Street Journal but couple of years before in 1984, Gay Bryant quoted this term ‘glass ceiling’ as a hurdle to rise up in the senior level management positions for women professionals (Boyd Karen S., 2008; Pai & Vaidya (2009). Years later in 1991, this issue was considered as vital by Department of Labour followed by the establishment of a bipartisan Glass Ceiling Commission involving twenty-one members under the Civil Rights Act, headed by President George H.W. Bush (Boyd Karen S., 2008; Elacqua et al. (2009); Hoobler et al. (2011).

A report on Federal Glass Ceiling Commission (1995) stated that ‘Glass Ceiling’ is an artificial barrier to women and minorities which stops them to move higher towards management and decision making positions in organizations. This report also throws light on the types of ‘Glass Ceiling’ barriers namely, societal barriers which are not in the direct control of the organizations, internal structural barriers which are in control of the organizations and the third level of barrier is governmental. Later, many researches around the globe has presented several forms of glass ceiling barriers and their influence on women career advancement. A compiled structure of ‘Glass Ceiling factors’ which has been reported by several authors in their studies has been presented below in Figure 1.

The ‘Glass Ceiling Barriers’

Past three decades has been much evident in context to the theory of ‘glass ceiling’. Women at workplace is still suffering from barriers which mainly persist at personal, societal or at organizational level De Alwis & Bombuwela (2013); Chanana (2003); Chinchilla et al. (2006); Jackson (2001); Jain & Mukherji (2010); Mayya et al. (2021);g Özkanli et al., 2009; Subramaniam et al. (2016) Schaefer (2008).

Personal and Family Barriers

Studies reported quite a few times that barriers which women face at their personal front specially related to their personality traits and family responsibilities holds them back from their career progression. These are such invisible barriers which women could not detect and get entrapped in the ‘double day’ workload of family and professional commitments Luke (2001).

Women tend to choose their career priorities Hakim (2006) and thus psychologically depends on their family members specifically male members for their decisions. This has been termed as ‘Cindrella syndrome by Colette Dowling Meral & Otlu (2016). An interesting study on women and their work-life and career choices has been carried out by Hakim (2006). The study is based on preference theory which categorized women’s career and personal life choices into three types – Home-centered, adaptive and work-centered. The study explains the conscious choices made by women related to their career and work life balance as the society and its cultural norms influence the thought process and perception of the people. Several studies have reported women’s role at home and burdened with family care and child care responsibilities as the pertinent barriers to ‘glass ceiling’ Jain & Mukherji (2010); Meral & Otlu (2016). Women are generally seen to avoid professional competition due to lack of ambition and less self-confidence Jain & Mukherji (2010). In contrary to men, women are also low in professional networking Ismail & Rasdi (2007). This may be due to the gender roles specified by the patriarchal and the unsupportive family environment which restricts female employees to take up new opportunities at workplace and they do tend to feel shy to make any professional associations with their male counterpart Özkanlı et al. (2009).

Social and Organizational Barriers

Since ages, women and their profession has been momentously been influenced by the society. Till date, the traditional mindset and the stereotyped thinking has been a crucial barrier to women at work Patwardhan et al. (2016); Raja (2016); Rishani et al. (2015). Although, the discussion on developing a more gender diverse human resource management system has been reported by several researchers in the past. Bierema (1998); McDonald & Hite (1998) has reported in their literature regarding the issues faced by women employees when it comes to their career progression. Literature intended towards the role of HRD at organizational level for unlocking potential of women employees and giving them job opportunities, which are challenging and visible as well. Apparently, organizational culture and management perception about leadership positions regardless of gender plays a vital role in boosting morale of women employees who are enough talented for making decisions of the companies they worked for Afza & Newaz (2008). From pay gap to promotion, women have been significantly underrepresented at leadership positions Fisher et al. (1993). Even mentoring to women employee’s works as a strategic step towards a gender diversified workplace Gibson (2002). Although studies show that challenges of low representation of women at senior positions could be due to personal factors such as family responsibilities or demographic factors like age, education and marital status. Simultaneously, indications of work challenges does exist in the form of organizational culture and career advancement opportunities namely; promotional opportunities, training, selection and recruitment techniques Subramaniam et al. (2016) Ward (2020).

Beyond Glass Ceiling: Glass Cliff

Globally, there is still no goodbye to ‘Glass Ceiling’ yet those who challenge to shatter this obstacle tend to face another twist in their career which is said to be ‘Glass Cliff’. It seems to be the next level-up to ‘glass ceiling’ where women employees are given chance to elevate their career at senior and decision making positions only when the organization is on the verge of fall Peregrine (2021). The term ‘glass cliff’ has been introduced in the corporate world by the psychologists of University of Exeter – Michelle Ryan and her colleague Alex Haslam Ward (2020). This initial study was done on FTSE 100 companies of United Kingdom by investigating the relation between the share price performance of these companies before and after appointing men and women executives on board Ryan (2006); Ryan (2007). The study concludes that due to lack of promotional opportunities, women end up accepting managerial task which are risky and crucial to success. Despite of the fact that females are considered as risk reluctant, yet they are willing to avail risky leadership roles and end up finding themselves on a ‘glass cliff’ Ryan (2007). ‘Glass cliff’ phenomenon has been stated as more dangerous than ‘glass ceiling’, while it is evident that later has been broken by many women leaders and executives at corporate level but women who reach the top level of management are eventually offered those tasks which are otherwise sure to be a failure Morgenroth et al. (2020); Nutley & Mudd (2005).

Conclusion

The ‘glass ceiling’ and ‘glass cliff’ phenomenon are the result of deep-rooted patriarchal history which is still imbedded in the mind of modern societies Vetter (2021). The ‘think manager-think male’ perception is still influencing the hiring and promotional decisions at organizational level resulting to ‘glass ceiling’ which is difficult to break, and those who are successful in making up to the managerial level are then assigned with the situations of crisis which invariably making the women manager held responsible in case of organizational failure Groeneveld et al. (2020); Vetter (2021). Although researchers have proven the positive performance of company’s financial status with more number of women on board Coverline (2019) but the fact of ‘glass cliff’ cannot be overlooked and require more focused discussions and future research with diversified demographics.

References

Afza, S.R., & Newaz, M.K. (2008). Factors determining the presence of glass ceiling and influencing women career advancement in Bangladesh.

Google Scholar

Bazazo, I., Nasseef, M.A., Mukattesh, B., Kastero, D., & Al-Hallaq, M. (2017). Assessing the glass ceiling effect for women in tourism and hospitality.Journal of Management and Strategy,8(3), 51.

Indexed at, Google Scholar

Bierema, L.L. (1998). A Synthesis of Women’s Career Development Issues. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 1998(80), 95–103.

Indexed at, Google Scholar

Chanana, K. (2003). Visibillty , Gender , and the Careers of. McGill Journal of Education, 38(3), 381–390.

Chinchilla, N., León, C., Torres, E., & Canela, M.A. (2006). Career inhibitors and career enablers for executive women.

Indexed at, Google Scholar

Coverline, C. (2019). Women and Growth. In Finance and Development, IMF

De Alwis, A.C., & Bombuwela, P.M. (2013). Effects of glass ceiling on women career development in private sector organizations–Case of Sri Lanka.

Indexed at, Google Scholar

Elacqua, T.C., Beehr, T.A., Hansen, C.P., & Webster, J. (2009). Managers' beliefs about the glass ceiling: Interpersonal and organizational factors.Psychology of women quarterly,33(3), 285-294.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Cross Ref

Federal glass ceiling commission. (1995). Good for business: Making Full Use Of The Nation’s Human Capital. In Washington, DC: US Department of Labor.

Fisher, B.D., Motowidlo, S., & Werner, S. (1993). Effects of gender and other factors on rank of law professors in colleges of business: Evidence of a glass ceiling.Journal of Business Ethics,12(10), 771-778.

Indexed at, Google Scholar

Gibson, S.K. (2002). Enhancing the career success of women faculty: mentoring as a HRD initiative in higher education. InINSTITUTION Academy of Human Resource Development, Baton Rouge, LA. PUB DATE 2002-02-00 NOTE 1125.; Vinod Inbakumar was the managing editor. Printed from CD-ROM version (not available from ERIC). For individual symposia, innovative sessions and poster session, see CE 084.

Google Scholar

Groeneveld, S., Bakker, V., & Schmidt, E. (2020). Breaking the glass ceiling, but facing a glass cliff? The role of organizational decline in women's representation in leadership positions in Dutch civil service organizations.Public Administration,98(2), 441-464.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Cross Ref

Hakim, C. (2006). Women, careers, and work-life preferences.British Journal of Guidance & Counselling,34(3), 279-294.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Cross Ref

Hoobler, J.M., Lemmon, G., & Wayne, S.J. (2011). Women's underrepresentation in upper management.Organizational Dynamics,3(40), 151-156.

Google Scholar

Ismail, M., & Rasdi, R.M. (2007). Impact of networking on career development: Experience of high-flying women academics in Malaysia.Human resource development International,10(2), 153-168.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Cross Ref

Jackson, J.C. (2001). Women middle managers’ perception of the glass ceiling.Women in management review,16(1), 30-41.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Cross Ref

Jain, N., & Mukherji, S. (2010). The Perception of'Glass Ceiling'in Indian Organizations: An Exploratory Study.South Asian Journal of Management,17(1).

Google Scholar

Luke, C. (2001). Academic career paths: Women in senior management in Malaysian higher education.Asia Pacific Journal of Education,21(2), 52-75.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Cross Ref

Mayya, S.S., Martis, M., Ashok, L., & Monteiro, A.D. (2021). Women in higher education: Are they ready to take up administrative positions?—A mixed-methods approach to identify the barriers, perceptions, and expectations.Sage Open,11(1), 2158244020983272.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Cross Ref

McDonald, K.S., & Hite, L.M. (1998). Human resource development's role in women's career progress.New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education,1998(80), 53-62.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Cross Ref

Meral, Y., & Otlu, F.E. (2016). Career barriers (glass ceiling) of women managers’ and a research about the reasons.International Journal of Business Marketing and Management,1(2), 26-38.

Google Scholar

Morgenroth, T., Kirby, T.A., Ryan, M.K., & Sudkämper, A. (2020). The who, when, and why of the glass cliff phenomenon: A meta-analysis of appointments to precarious leadership positions.Psychological bulletin,146(9), 797.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Cross Ref

Nutley, S., & Mudd, J. (2005). Has the glass cliff replaced the glass ceiling for women employed in the public sector?.

Indexed at, Google Scholar

Özkanl?, Ö., de Lourdes Machado, M., White, K., O’Connor, P., Riordan, S., & Neale, J. (2009). Gender and management in HEIs: Changing organisational and management structures.Tertiary Education and Management,15(3), 241-257.

Indexed at, Google Scholar

Pai, K., & Vaidya, S. (2009). Glass ceiling: role of women in the corporate world.Competitiveness review: An international business journal.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Cross Ref

Patwardhan, V., Mayya, S., & Joshi, H.G. (2016). Barriers to career advancement of women managers in Indian five star hotels: A gender perspective.International Journal of Human Resource Studies,6(2), 248-271.

Indexed at, Google Scholar

Peregrine, M. (2021). The ‘Glass Cliff’ Challenge For Corporate Governance. Forbes.

Raja, B.I. (2016). Social factors and women’s career advancement to senior management position in Pakistan.Asia Pacific Journal of Contemporary Education and Communication Technology,2(1), 134-145.

Google Scholar

Rishani, M., Mallah, M., Houssami, S., & Ismail, H. (2015). Lebanese perceptions of the glass ceiling.Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Cross Ref

Ryan, M., & Haslam, A. (2006). What lies beyond the glass ceiling? The glass cliff and the potential precariousness of women's leadership positions.Human Resource Management International Digest.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Cross Ref

Ryan, M.K., & Haslam, S.A. (2007). The glass cliff: Exploring the dynamics surrounding the appointment of women to precarious leadership positions.Academy of management review,32(2), 549-572.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Cross Ref

Schaefer, R.T. (2008).Encyclopedia of race, ethnicity, and society(Vol. 1). Sage.

Indexed at, Google Scholar

Schulz, D.J., & Enslin, C. (2014). The female executive’s perspective on career planning and advancement in organizations: Experiences with cascading gender bias, the double-bind, and unwritten rules to advancement.Sage Open,4(4), 2158244014558040.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Cross Ref

Subramaniam, G., Khadri, N.A.M., Maniam, B., & Ali, E. (2016). The glass ceiling phenomenon-does it Really affect Women's career advancement in Malaysia?.Journal of Organizational Culture, Communications and Conflict,20, 81.

Indexed at, Google Scholar

Vetter, J. (2021). The Glass Cliff–Women’s Thrive to Save Poor Performance and how to Approach it in the Workplace.Junior Management Science,6(1), 39-59.

Google Scholar, Cross Ref

Ward, M. (2020). The psychologist who coined the term “glass cliff” explains what it is, and why companies need to be more wary of it now | Business Insider India. Business Insider India.

Xiang, X., Ingram, J., & Cangemi, J. (2017). Barriers Contributing to Under-Representation of Women in High-level Decision-making Roles across Selected Countries.Organization Development Journal,35(3).

Indexed at, Google Scholar

Received: 28-Jul-2022, Manuscript No. AMSJ-22-12391; Editor assigned: 01-Aug-2022, PreQC No. AMSJ-22-12391(PQ); Reviewed: 16-Aug-2022, QC No. AMSJ-22-12391; Revised: 25-Aug-2022, Manuscript No. AMSJ-22-12391(R); Published: 02-Sep-2022